The visual image and the political image: A review of visual communication research in the field of political communication

Review of Communication

Volumn 12, Issue 2, 2012, Pages 118-142

  Schill, Dan ^a  

^a SOUTHERN METHODIST UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Image bite; Political communication; Visual communication; Visual rhetoric

Indexed keywords

EID: 84874265800     PISSN: 15358593     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/15358593.2011.653504     Document Type: Review

References (190)

1. Abraham, L., & Appiah, O. (2006). Framing news stories: The role of visual imagery in priming racial stereotypes. Howard Journal of Communications, 17(3), 183-203.
2. Adams, W., & Schreibman, F. (Eds.). (1978). Television network news: Issues in content research. Washington, DC: George Washington University.
3. Ambady, N., & Rosenthal, R. (1993). Half a minute: predicting teacher evaluations from thin slices of nonverbal behavior and physical attractiveness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 64, 431-441.
4. Anderson, V.F., & Van Winkle R. (1976). In the arena: The care and feeding of American politics. New York: Harper & Row.
5. Argyle, M., Alkema, F., & Gilmour, R. (1972). The communication of friendly and hostile attitudes by verbal and non-verbal signals. European Journal of Social Psychology, 1, 385-400.
6. Argyle, M., Salter, V., Nicholson, H., Williams, M., & Burgess, P. (1970). The communication of inferior and superior attitudes by verbal and nonverbal signals. British Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 9, 222-231.
7. Arpan, L.M., Baker, K., Youngwon, L., Taejin, J., Lorusso, L., & Smith, J. (2006). News coverage of social protests and the effects of photographs on prior attitudes. Mass Communication & Society, 9(1), 1-20.
8. Bailenson, J.N., Garland, P., Iyengar, S., & Yee, N. (2006). Transformed facial similarity as a political cue: A preliminary investigation. Political Psychology, 27(3), 373-385.
9. Bailenson, J.N., Iyengar, S., Yee, N., & Collins, N. (2008). Facial similarity between voters and candidates causes social influence. Public Opinion Quarterly, 72, 935-961.
10. Banducci, S.A., Karp, J.A., Thrasher, M., & Rallings, C. (2008). Ballot photographs as cues in lowinformation elections. Political Psychology, 29, 903-917.
11. Baran, S.J., & Davis, D.K. (1995). Mass communication theory: Foundations, ferment, and future. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
12. Barnhurst, K.G., & Steele, C.A. (1997). Image-bite news: The visual coverage of elections on U.S. television, 1968 1992. Press/Politics, 2(1), 40-58.
13. Barrett, A.W., & Barrington, L.W. (2005a). Bias in newspaper photograph selection. Political Research Quarterly, 58(4), 609-618.
14. Barrett, A.W., & Barrington, L.W. (2005b). Is a picture worth a thousand words?: Newspaper photographs and voter evaluations of political candidates. The Harvard International Journal of Press/Politics, 10(4), 98-113.
15. Barry, A.M. (1997). Visual intelligence: Perception, image, and manipulation in visual communication. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.
16. Barry, A.M. (2005). Perception theory. In K. Smith, S. Moriarty, G. Barbatsis, & K. Kenney (Eds.), Handbook of visual communication (pp. 45 62). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
17. Bartels, L.M. (1993). Messages received: The political impact of media exposure. American Political Science Review, 87, 267-285.
18. Benjamin, D.J., & Shapiro, J.M. (2009). Thin-slice forecasts of gubernatorial elections. The Review of Economics and Statistics, 91, 523-536.
19. Bennett, W.L. (2011). News: The politics of illusion (9th ed.). New York: Longman.
20. Berkman, R., & Kitch, L.W. (1986). Politics in the media age. New York: McGraw-Hill.
21. Berry, C., & Brosius, H.B. (1991). Multiple effects of visual format on TV news learning. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 5, 519-528.
22. Birdsell, D.S., & Groarke, L. (1996). Toward a theory of visual argument. Argumentation and Advocacy, 33, 1-10.
23. Birdsell, D.S., & Groarke, L. (2007). Outlines of a theory of visual argument. Argumentation and Advocacy, 43, 103-113.
24. Birdwhistell, R.L. (1970). Kinesics and context. Philadelphia: University of Philadelphia Press.
25. Blair, J.A. (1996). The possibility and actuality of visual arguments. Argumentation and Advocacy, 33, 23 39.
26. Blair, J.A. (2004). The rhetoric of visual arguments. In C.A. Hill & M. Helmers (Eds.), Defining visual rhetorics (pp. 41-91). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
27. Brosius, H.B. (1991). Format effects on comprehension of television news. Journalism Quarterly, 68(3), 396-401.
28. Brosius, H.B. (1993). The effects of emotional pictures in television news. Communication Research, 20(1), 105-124.
29. Brosius, H.B., Donsback, W., & Birk, M. (1996). How do text-picture relations affect the informational effectiveness of television newscasts. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 40, 180-195.
30. Bucy, E.P. (2000). Emotional and evaluative consequences of inappropriate leader displays. Communication Research, 27, 194-226.
31. Bucy, E.P. (2003). Emotion, presidential communication, and traumatic news: Processing the World Trade Center attacks. Press/Politics, 8(4), 76-96.
32. Bucy, E.P., & Bradley, S.D. (2004). Presidential expressions and viewer emotion: Counterempathic responses to televised leader displays. Social Science Information/Information sur les Sciences Sociales, 43, 59-94.
33. Bucy, E.P., & Grabe, M.E. (2007). Taking television seriously: A sound and image bite analysis of presidential campaign coverage, 1992 2004. Journal of Communication, 57, 652-675.
34. Bucy, E.P., & Newhagen, J.E. (1999). The emotional appropriateness heuristic: Processing televised presidential reactions to the news. Journal of Communication, 49(4), 59-79.
35. Bumiller, E. (2003, May 16). Keepers of Bush image lift stagecraft to new heights. The New York Times.
36. Burke, K. (1950). A rhetoric of motives (1st ed.). New York: Prentice-Hall.
37. Cialdini, R.B. (1993). Influence: The psychology of persuasion (Rev. ed.). New York: Morrow.
38. Coleman, R. (2006). The effects of visuals on ethical reasoning: What's a photograph worth to journalists making moral decisions? Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 83(4), 835-850.
39. Coleman, R., & Banning, S. (2006). Network TV news' affective framing of the presidential candidates: Evidence for a second-level agenda-setting effect through visual framing. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 83(2), 313-328.
40. Cook, T.E. (1998). Governing with the news: The news media as a political institution (2nd ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
41. Damasio, A. (1999). The feeling of what happens: Body and emotion in the making of consciousness. New York: Harcourt.
42. Deaver, M.K., & Herskowitz, M. (1987). Behind the scenes: in which the author talks about Ronald and Nancy Reagan. and himself (1st ed.). New York: Morrow.
43. Denton, R.E., & Hahn, D.F. (1986). Presidential communication: Description and analysis. New York: Praeger.
44. Denton, R.E., & Kuypers, J.A. (2008). Politics and communication in America: Campaigns, media, and governing in the 21st Century. Long Grove, IL: Waveland Press.
45. Detenber, B.H., & Simons, R.F. (1998). Roll'em: The effects of picture motion on emotional responses. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 42(1), 113-128.
46. Dion, K., Berscheid, E., & Walster, E. (1972). What is beautiful is good. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 24, 285-290.
47. Domke, D., Perlmutter, D., & Spratt, M. (2002). The primes of our times? An examination of the 'power' of visual images. Journalism, 3(2), 131-159.
48. Doremus, M.E. (1992). The use of visuals to clarify ambiguous verbal information in a television news story. Journal of Visual Literacy, 12(1), 23-34.
49. Drew, D., & Grimes, T. (1987). Audio-visual redundancy and TV news recall. Communication Research, 14, 452-461.
50. Edwards, J.L. (2004). Echoes of Camelot: How images construct cultural memory through rhetorical framing. In C.A. Hill & M. Helmers (Eds.), Defining visual rhetorics (pp. 179-194). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
51. Edwardson, M., Grooms, D., & Proudlove, S. (1981). Television news information gain from interesting video vs. talking heads. Journal of Broadcasting, 25(1), 12-24.
52. Efran, M., & Patterson, E. (1974). Voters vote beautiful: The effect of physical appearance on a national debate. Canadian Journal of Behavioral Science, 6, 352-356.
53. Ekman, P. (1982). Emotion in the human face. New York: Cambridge University Press.
54. Endelman, M. (1976). Political settings as symbolism. In G.N. Gordon (Ed.), Drama in life: The uses of communication in society (pp. 348-359). New York: Hastings House.
55. Engell, A.D., Haxby, J.V., & Todorov, A. (2007). Implicit trustworthiness decisions: Automatic coding of face properties in the human amygdala. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 19(9), 1508-1519.
56. Englis, B.G. (1994). The role of affect in political advertising: Voter emotional responses to the nonverbal behavior of politicians. In E.M. Clark, T.C. Brock, & D.W. Stewart (Eds.), Attention, attitude, and affect in response to advertising (pp. 223-247). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
57. Erickson, K.V. (2000). Presidential rhetoric's visual turn: Performance fragments and the politics of illusionism. Communication Monographs, 67, 138-157.
58. Fahmy, S. (2007). "They took it down": Exploring determinants of visual reporting in the toppling of the Saddam statue in national and international newspapers. Mass Communication & Society, 10(2), 143-170.
59. Fahmy, S. (2010). Contrasting visual frames of our times: A framing-analysis of Englishand Arabic-language press coverage of war and terrorism. International Communication Gazette, 72(8), 695 717.
60. Farnsworth, S.J., & Lichter, S.R. (2011). The nightly news nightmare: Media coverage of U.S. Presidential Elections, 1988-2008. Lanham, MA: Rowman & Littlefield.
61. Findahl, O. (1981). The effect of visual illustrations upon perception and retention of news programmes. Communications, 7, 151-167.
62. Fisher, W.R. (1984). Narration as a human communication paradigm: The case of public moral argument. Communication Monographs, 51, 1-22.
63. Fishman, J.M., & Marvin, C. (2003). Portrayals of violence and group difference in newspaper photographs: Nationalism and media. Journal of Communication, 53(1), 32-44.
64. Fleming, D. (1996). Can pictures be arguments? Argumentation and Advocacy, 33, 11-22.
65. Foss, S.K. (2005). Theory of visual rhetoric. In K. Smith, S. Moriarty, G. Barbatsis, & K. Kenney (Eds.), Handbook of visual communication: Theory, methods and media (pp. 141-152). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
66. Gallagher, V., & Zagacki, K.S. (2005). Visibility and rhetoric: The power of visual images in Norman Rockwell's depictions of civil rights. Quarterly Journal of Speech, 91(2), 175-200.
67. Gerbner, G., Gross, L., Morgan, M., & Signorielli, N. (1986). Living with television: The dynamics of the cultivation process. In J. Bryant & D. Zillman (Eds.), Perspectives on media effects (pp. 17-40). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
68. German, K. (2008). Visual images and presidential leadership: A case study of LBJ and his beagles. Journal of the Communication, Speech & Theatre Association of North Dakota, 21, 21-32.
69. Gibson, R., & Zillmann, D. (2000). Reading between the photographs: The influence of incidental pictorial information on issue perception. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 77(2), 355-366.
70. Gilliam, F.D., & Iyengar, S. (2000). Prime suspects: The influence of local television news on the viewing public. American Journal of Political Science, 44, 560-573.
71. Glassman, C., & Kenney, K. (1994). Myths & presidential campaign photographs. Visual Communication Quarterly, 1(4), 4-7.
72. Grabe, M.E. (1996). The SABC's coverage of the 1987 and 1989 elections: The matter of visual bias. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 40, 1-27.
73. Grabe, M.E., & Bucy, E.P. (2009). Image bite politics: News and the visual framing of elections. New York: Oxford University Press.
74. Graber, D.A. (1981). Political languages. In D. Nimmo & K.R. Sanders (Eds.), Handbook of political communication (pp. 195-223). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
75. Graber, D.A. (1987). Kind words and harsh pictures: How television presents the candidates. In K.L. Schlozman (Ed.), Elections in America (pp. 115 141). Winchester, MA: Allen & Unwin.
76. Graber, D.A. (1990). Seeing is remembering: How visuals contribute to learning from television news. Journal of Communication, 40(3), 134-155.
77. Graber, D.A. (1996a). Dissecting the audio-visual language of political television. Research in Micropolitics, 5, 3-31.
78. Graber, D.A. (1996b). Say it with pictures. The Annals of the American Academy, 546, 85-96.
79. Graber, D.A. (2001). Processing politics: Learning from television in the Internet age. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
80. Greene, E., & Fraser, S.C. (2002). Observation distance and recognition of photographs of celebrities' faces. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 95, 637-651.
81. Griffin, M. (1992). Looking at TV news: Strategies for research. Communication, 13(2), 121-141.
82. Griffin, M. (2001). Camera as witness, image as sign: The study of visual communication in communication research. In W.B. Gudykunst (Ed.), Communication yearbook, 24 (pp. 433-463). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
83. Griffin, M., & Lee, J. (1995). Picturing the Gulf War: Constructing an image of war in Time, Newsweek, and U.S. News and World Report. Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly, 72(4), 813-825.
84. Grimes, T. (1991). Mild auditory-visual dissonance in television news may exceed viewer attentional capacity. Human Communication Research, 18, 268-298.
85. Grimes, T., & Drechsel, R. (1996). Word-picture juxtaposition, schemata, and defamation in television news. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 73(1), 169-180.
86. Hacker, K.L. (1995). Candidate images in presidential elections. Westport, CT: Praeger.
87. Halley, P.S. (2002). On the road with Hillary: A behind-the scenes look at the journey from Arkansas to the U.S. Senate. New York: Viking.
88. Hallin, D.C. (1992). Sound bite news: Television coverage of elections, 1968-1988. Journal of Communication, 42(2), 5-24.
89. Hariman, R., & Lucaites, J.L. (2007). No caption needed: Iconic photographs, public culture, and liberal democracy. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
90. Hart, R.P. (1999). Seducing America: How television charms the modern voter. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications.
91. Hellweg, S.A., & Phillips, S.L. (1981). A verbal and visual analysis of the 1980 Houston Republican presidential primary debate. The Southern Speech Communication Journal, 47, 23-38.
92. Hendrix, S. (2001, September). Planning your TV ads: The pre-production process. Campaigns & Elections, 44-46.
93. Hill, C.A. (2004). The psychology of rhetorical images. In C.A. Hill & M. Helmers (Eds.), Defining visual rhetorics (pp. 25-40). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
94. Hoffman, K.S. (2011). Visual persuasion in George W. Bush's presidency: Cowboy imagery in public discourse. Congress & the Presidency, 38, 322-343.
95. Hollihan, T.A. (2001). Uncivil wars: Political campaigns in a media age. Boston: Bedford/St.
96. Martins. Irby K. (2004). When seeing is no longer believing: Photographers and photo editors have the obligation of accuracy. Nieman Reports, 58(1), 42.
97. Jamieson, K.H. (1988). Eloquence in an electronic age: The transformation of political speechmaking. New York: Oxford University Press.
98. Jamieson, K.H. (1996). Packaging the presidency. New York: Oxford University Press.
99. Johns, R., & Shephard, M. (2011). Facing the voters: The potential impact of ballot paper photographs in British Elections. Political Studies, 34, 83-110.
100. Johnson, A. (1990). Trends in political communication: A selective review of research in the 1980s. In D.L. Swanson & D. Nimmo (Eds.), New directions in political communication (pp. 329-362). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
101. Johnson, D. (2007). Martin Luther King Jr.'s 1963 Birmingham campaign as image event. Rhetoric & Public Affairs, 10(1), 1-26.
102. Kaid, L.L. (2004). Political advertising. In L.L. Kaid (Ed.), Handbook of political communication research (pp. 155-202). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
103. Kenner, R. (Producer/Director), & Pearlstein, E. (Producer). (2009). Food, Inc. [Motion picture]. United States: Magnolia Pictures.
104. Kenney, K. (1993). Influences of politics and economics upon photographic content in Chinese newspapers. Asian Journal of Communication, 3(2), 54-74.
105. Kenney, K., & Scott, L.M. (2003). A review of the visual rhetoric literature. In L.M. Scott & R. Batra (Eds.), Persuasive imagery: A consumer response perspective (pp. 17-56). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
106. Kepplinger, H.M. (1982). Visual biases in television campaign coverage. Communication Research, 9, 432-446.
107. Kipper, A. (1986). Television camera movement as a source of perceptual information. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 30(3), 295-307.
108. Kirouac, G., & Dore, F.Y. (1985). Accuracy of the judgment of facial expression of emotions as a function of sex and level of education. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 9, 3-7.
109. Klijn, M.E. (2003). Attention-getting and comprehension-raising attributes in visual in Dutch and American, public and private television news about violence. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 47(1), 124-144.
110. Krauss, R.M., Apple, W., Morency, N., Wenzel, C., & Winton, W. (1981). Verbal, vocal, and visible factors in judgments of another's affect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 40(2), 312-320.
111. Lang, A. (1995). Defining audio/video redundancy from a limited capacity information processing perspective. Communication Research, 22, 86-115.
112. Lanzetta, J.T., Sullivan, D.G., Masters, R.D., & McHugo, G.J. (1985). Emotional and cognitive responses to televised images of political leaders. In S. Kraus & R.M. Perloff (Eds.), Mass media and political thought: An information-processing approach (pp. 85-116). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
113. Lederman, J. (1992). Battle lines: The American media and the intifada. New York: Henry Holt.
114. Lee, T., Ryan, W.E., Wanta, W., & Chang, K. (2004). Looking presidential: A comparison of newspaper photographs of candidates in the United States and Taiwan. Asian Journal of Communication, 14(2), 121-139.
115. Leslie, L.Z. (1986). Newspaper photo coverage of censure of McCarthy. Journalism Quarterly, 63(4), 850-853.
116. Little, A.C., Burriss, R.P., Jones, B.C., & Roberts, S.C. (2007). Facial appearance affects voting decisions. Evolution and Human Behavior, 28, 18-27.
117. Lombard, M., & Ditton, T. (1997). At the heart of it all: The concept of presence. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 3(2), http://jcmc.indiana.edu/vol3/issue2/lombard.html
118. Lowry, D.T., & Shidler, J.A. (1995). The biters and the bitten: An analysis of network TV news bias in campaign'92. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 69, 341-361.
119. Lowry, D.T., & Shidler, J.A. (1998). The sound bites, the biters, and the bitten: A two-campaign test of the anti-incumbent bias hypothesis in network TV news. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 75, 719-729.
120. Lucaites, J.L. (1997). Visualizing "The People:" Individualism vs. collective action in "Let Us Now Praise Famous Men". Quarterly Journal of Speech, 83, 269 288.
121. Luntz, F. (2007). Words that work: It's not what you say, it's what people hear. New York: Hyperion.
122. Mandell, L.M., & Shaw, D.L. (1973). Judging people in the news*unconsciously: Effects of camera angle and bodily activity. Journal of Broadcasting, 17(3), 353-362.
123. Masters, R.D. (1981). Linking ethology and political science: Photographs, political attention, and presidential elections. New Directions for Methodology of Social and Behavioral Science, 7, 61-80.
124. Masters, R.D., Frey, S., & Bente, G. (1991). Dominance and attention: Images of leaders in German, French, and American TV news. Polity, 25, 373-394.
125. Masters, R.D., & Sullivan, D.G. (1993). Nonverbal behavior and leadership: Emotion and cognition in political information processing. In S. Iyengar & W.J. McGuire (Eds.), Explorations in political psychology (pp. 150-182). Durham, NC: Duke University Press.
126. McCombs, M. (2004). Setting the agenda: The mass media and public opinion. Cambridge, UK: Polity Press.
127. McGurk, H., & MacDonald, J. (1976). Hearing lips and seeing voices. Nature, 264, 746-748.
128. Medhurst, M.J., & Desousa, M.A. (1981). Political cartoons as rhetorical form: A taxonomy of graphic discourse. Communication Monographs, 48, 197-236.
129. Mehrabian, A. (1972). Nonverbal communication. Chicago: Aldine-Atherton.
130. Messaris, P. (1994). Visual literacy: Image, mind, reality. Boulder, CO: Westview.
131. Messaris, P. (1997). Visual persuasion: The role of images in advertising. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
132. Messaris, P., & Abraham, L. (2001). The role of images in framing news stories. In S.D. Reese, O.H. Gandy, & A.E. Grant (Eds.), Framing public life (pp. 215-226). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
133. Meyrowitz, J. (1985). No sense of place: The impact of electronic media on social behavior. New York: Oxford University Press.
134. Moffit, M.A. (1999). Campaign strategies and message design: A practitioner's guide from start to finish. Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers.
135. Moriarty, S.E. (1987). A content analysis of visuals used in print media advertising. Journalism Quarterly, 64(2), 550-554.
136. Moriarty, S.E., & Garramone, G.M. (1986). A study of newsmagazine photographs of the 1984 presidential campaign. Journalism Quarterly, 63(4), 728-734.
137. Moriarty, S.E., & Popovich, M.N. (1991). Newsmagazine visuals and the 1988 presidential election. Journalism Quarterly, 68(3), 371-380.
138. Moriarty, S., & Shaw, D. (1995). An antiseptic war: Were newsmagazine images of the Gulf War too soft? Visual Communication Quarterly, 2(2), 4-8.
139. Morello, J.T. (1988). Argument and visual structuring in the 1984 Mondale Reagan Debates: The medium's influence on the perception of clash. Western Journal of Speech Communication, 52, 277-290.
140. Morello, J.T. (1992). The "look" and language of clash: Visual structuring of argument in the 1988 Bush Dukakis Debates. The Southern Communication Journal, 57, 205-218.
141. Mullen, B., Futrell, D., Stairs, D., Tice, D., Baumeister, R., Dawson, K., Riordan, C., Radloff, C., Goethals, G., Kennedy, J., & Rosenfeld, P. (1986). Newscasters' facial expressions and voting behavior of viewers: Can a smile elect a president? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51(2), 291 295.
142. Mullen, L.J. (1997). The president's visual image from 1945 to 1974: An analysis of spatial configuration in news magazine photographs. Presidential Studies Quarterly, 27, 819-834.
143. Nelson, J.S., & Boyton, G.R. (1997). Video rhetorics: Televised advertising in American politics. Chicago: University of Illinois Press.
144. Newhagen, J.E. (1998). TV news images that induce anger, fear, and disgust: Effects on approachavoidance and memory. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 42, 265-276.
145. Newhagen, J.E. (2002). The role of meaning construction in the process of persuasion for viewers of television images. In J.P. Dillard & P.M. Dillard (Eds.), The persuasion handbook: Developments in theory and practice (pp. 729-748). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
146. Newhagen, J.E., & Reeves, B. (1992). This evening's bad news: Effects of compelling negative television news images on memory. Journal of Communication, 42(2), 25-41.
147. Noller, P. (1985). Video primacy*A further look. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 9(1), 28-47.
148. Olivola, C.Y., & Todorov, A. (2010). Elected in 100 milliseconds: Appearance-based trait inferences and voting. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 34, 83-110.
149. Paivio, A. (1979). Imagery and verbal processes. Hillsdale, NK: Erlbaum.
150. Parmelee, K.H. (2003). Meet the candidate videos: Analyzing presidential primary campaign videocassettes. Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers.
151. Patterson, T.E., & McClure, R.D. (1976). The unseeing eye: The myth of television power in national politics. New York: Putnam.
152. Perlmutter, D.D. (1998). Photojournalism and foreign policy. Westport, CT: Praeger.
153. Perlmutter, D.D. (1999). Visions of war: Picturing warfare from the Stone Age to the cyberage. New York: St. Martin's.
154. Perlmutter, D.D. (2007). Picturing China in the American press: The visual portrayal of Sino-American relations in Time magazine, 1949-1973. Lanham, MD: Lexington.
155. Perlmutter, D.D., & Wagner, G.L. (2004). The anatomy of a photojournalistic icon: Marginalization of dissent in the selection and framing of 'a death in Genoa'. Visual Communication, 3(1), 91-108.
156. Peterson, T. (2005). Testing visual signals in representative studies. International Journal of Public Opinion Research, 17(4), 456-472.
157. Pew Research Center for the People & the Press (2010, September 12). Americans spending more time following the news. Retrieved from http://people-press.org/reports/pdf/652.pdf
158. Pfau, M., Haigh, M., Fifrick, A., Holl, D., Tedesco, A., Cope, J., Nunnally, D., Schiess, A., Preston, D., Roszkowski, P., & Martin, M. (2006). The effects of print news photographs on the casualties of war. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 83, 150-168.
159. Plutchik, R. (1980). Emotion: A psychoevolutionary synthesis. New York: Harper & Row.
160. Popovich, P.M., Gehlauf, D.N., Jolton, J.A., Everton, W.J., Godinho, R.M., Mastrangelo, P. M., & Somers, J.M. (1996). Physical attractiveness and sexual harassment: Does every picture tell a story or every story draw a picture? Journal of Applied Psychology, 26, 520-542.
161. Posner, M.I., Nissen, M.J., & Klein, R.M. (1976). Visual dominance: An informationprocessing account of its origins and significance. Psychological Review, 83, 157-171.
162. Poutvaara, P., Jordahl, H., & Berggren, N. (2009). Faces of politicians: Babyfacedness predicts inferred competence but not electoral success. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 45, 1132-1135.
163. Riggle, E.D., Ottati, V.C., Wyer, R.S., Kuklinski, J., & Schwarz, N. (1992). Bases of political judgments: The role of stereotypic and nonstereotypic information. Political Behavior, 14(1), 67-87.
164. Rosenberg, S.W., Bohan, L.B., McCafferty, P., & Harris, K. (1986). The image and the vote: The effect of candidate presentation on voter preference. American Journal of Political Science, 30(2), 108-127.
165. Rosenberg, S., & McCafferty, P. (1987). The image and the vote: Manipulating voter's preferences. Public Opinion Quarterly, 51, 31-47.
166. Scheufele, D.A., Kim, E., & Brossard, D. (2007). My friend's enemy: How split-screen debate coverage influences evaluation of presidential debates. Communication Research, 34(1), 3-24.
167. Schill, D. (2009). Stagecraft and statecraft: Advance and media events in political communication. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books.
168. Schmuhl, R. (1990). Statecraft and stagecraft: American political life in the age of personality. Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press.
169. Schweiger, G., & Adami, M. (1999). The nonverbal image of politicians and political parties. In B.I. Newman (Ed.), Handbook of political marketing (pp. 347-364). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.
170. Shaw, D. (1992, October 26). News often has to be seen before it is heard. Los Angeles Times, p. A16.
171. Shea, D.M., & Burton, M.J. (2001). Campaign craft: The strategies, tactics, and art of political campaign management. Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers.
172. Shella, J. (2003, May 15). Some audience members told not to wear ties for Bush speech. WISH-TV 8. Retrieved from http://www.wishtv.com/global/story.asp?S1278487&nav0Ra6Fp41
173. Sigelman, L., Sigelman, C.K., & Fowler, C. (1987). A bird of a different feather? An experimental investigation of physical attractiveness and the electability of female candidates. Social Psychology Quarterly, 50(1), 32-43.
174. Spratt, M., Peterson, A., & Lagos, T. (2005). Of photographs and flags: Uses and perceptions of an iconic image before and after September 11, 2001. Popular Communication, 3(2), 117-136.
175. Stevens, F. (Producer), DuPre Pesmen, P. (Producer), & Psihoyos, L. (Director). (2009). The cove [Motion picture]. United States: Lionsgate.
176. Strachan, J.C., & Kendall, K.E. (2004). Political candidates' convention films: Finding the perfect image*An overview of political image making. In C.A. Hill & M. Helmers (Eds.), Defining visual rhetorics (pp. 135-154). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
177. Strother, R.D. (1999). Preparing candidates for television. In D.D. Perlmutter (Ed.), The Manship School guide to political communication (pp. 176-185). Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana State University Press.
178. Sullivan, D.G., & Masters, R.D. (1988). Happy warriors: Leaders' facial displays, viewers' emotions, and political support. American Journal of Political Science, 32, 345-368.
179. Surawski, M.K., & Ossoff, E.P. (2006). The effects of physical and vocal attractiveness on impression formation of politicians. Current Psychology, 25(1), 15-27.
180. Tiemans, R.K. (1978). Television's portrayal of the 1976 presidential debates: An analysis of visual content. Communication Monographs, 45, 362-370.
181. Todorov, A., Mandisodza, A., Goren, A., & Hall, C. (2005). Inferences of competence from faces predict election outcomes. Science, 308, 1623-1626.
182. Valentino, N.A., Hutchings, V.L., & White, I.K. (2002). Cues that matter: How political ads prime racial attitudes during campaigns. American Political Science Review, 96(1), 75-90.
183. Valentino, N.A., Traugott, M.W., & Hutchings, V.L. (2002). Group cues and ideological constraint: A replication of political advertising effects studies in the lab and in the field. Political Communication, 19, 29 48.
184. Waldman, P., & Devitt, J. (1998). Newspaper photographs and the 1996 presidential election: The question of bias. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 75, 302-311.
185. Wanta, W. (1988). The effects of dominant photographs: An agenda-setting experiment. Journalism Quarterly, 65(1), 107-111.
186. Westen, D. (2007). The political brain: The role of emotion in deciding the fate of the nation. New York: Public Affairs.
187. White, T.H. (1961). The making of the president 1960. New York: Atheneum Publishers.
188. Willis, J., & Todorov, A. (2006). First impressions: Making up your mind after 100 ms exposure to a face. Psychological Science, 17, 592-598.
189. Woo, J. (1994). Journalism objectivity in news magazine photography. Visual Communication Quarterly, 1(3), 9-16.
190. Wray, J.H. (1999). Through a glass darkly: Television and American electoral politics. In B. I. Newman (Ed.), Handbook of political marketing (pp. 439-454). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.