Swimmers contribute to additional formation of N-nitrosamines in chlorinated pool water

Toxicology and Environmental Health Sciences

Volumn 3, Issue 3, 2011, Pages 168-174

  Kim, Hekap ^a   Han, Kichan ^a  

^a Kangwon National University   (South Korea)

Author keywords

Chlorination; Formation; Indoor swimming pool; N nitrosamines; NDMA; Swimmer

Indexed keywords

CHLORINE; DIETHYLNITROSAMINE; DIMETHYLNITROSAMINE; DRINKING WATER; HYPOCHLORITE SODIUM; NITROGEN; NITROSAMINE; NITROSOMORPHOLINE;

ARTICLE; ELECTROLYSIS; FLUORESCENCE; HIGH PERFORMANCE LIQUID CHROMATOGRAPHY; PARTITION COEFFICIENT; SWIMMING; SWIMMING POOL; VOLATILIZATION; WATER QUALITY; WATER SAMPLING;

EID: 84873277855     PISSN: 20059752     EISSN: 22337784     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s13530-011-0094-1     Document Type: Article

References (41)

1. CDC, Healthy Swimming and Recreational Water. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), http://www. cdc. gov/healthywater/swimming/rwi/rwiwhat. html (2011).
2. Aggazzotti, G. & Predieri, G. Survey of volatile halogenated organics (VHO) in Italy: levels of VHO in drinking waters, surface water and swimming pools. Water Res. 20, 959-963 (1986).
3. Weisel, C. P. & Shepard, T. A. Chloroform exposure and the body burden associated with swimming in chlorinated pools, in Water Contamination and Health: Integration of Exposure Assessment, Toxicology, and Risk Assessment (ed Wang, R. G. M) 135-148 (Marcel Dekker, New York, 1994).
4. Judd, S. & Jeffrey, J. A. Trihalomethane formation during swimming pool water disinfection using hypobromous and hypochlorous acids. Water Res. 29, 1203-1206 (1995).
5. Chu, H. & Nieuwenhuijsen, M. J. Distribution and determinants of trihalomethane concentrations in indoor swimming pools. Occup. Environ. Med. 59, 243-247 (2002).
6. Kim, H., Shim, J. & Lee, S. Formation of disinfection by-products in chlorinated swimming pool water. Chemosphere46, 123-130 (2002).
7. Zwiener, C. et al. Drowning in disinfection byproducts? Assessing swimming pool water. Environ. Sci. Technol. 41, 363-372 (2007).
8. Villanueva, C. M. et al. Bladder cancer and exposure to water disinfection by-products through ingestion, bathing, showering, and swimming in pools. Am. J. Epidemiol. 165, 148-156 (2007).
9. Weisel, C. P. et al. Childhood asthma and environmental exposures at swimming pools: state of the science and research recommendations. Environ. Health Perspect. 117, 500-507 (2009).
10. Richardson, S. D. et al. Occurrence, genotoxicity, and carcinogenicity of regulated and emerging disinfection by-products in drinking water: a review and roadmap for research. Mutat. Res. 636, 178-242 (2007).
11. Bond, T., Huang, J., Templeton, M. R. & Graham, N. Occurrence and control of nitrogenous disinfection by-products in drinking water - a review. Water Res. 45, 4341-4354 (2011).
12. Richardson, S. D. Water analysis: emerging contaminants and current issues. Anal. Chem. 81, 4645-4677 (2009).
13. U. S. EPA, Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS), http://www. epa. gov/iris (2003).
14. th ed. Washington, DC (2011).
15. Kim, H. & Han, K. Ingestion exposure to nitrosamines in chlorinated drinking water. Environ. Health Toxicol. 26, 1-7 (2011).
16. Walse, S. S. & Mitch, W. A. Nitrosamine carcinogens also swim in chlorinated pools. Environ. Sci. Technol. 42, 1032-1037 (2008).
17. Polo, J. & Chow, Y. L. Efficient photolytic degradation of nitrosamines. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 56, 997-1001 (1976).
18. Stephan, M. I. & Bolton, J. R. UV direct photolysis of N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA): kinetic and product study. Helvetica Chim. Acta85, 1416-1426 (2002).
19. Schreiber, I. M. & Mitch, W. A. Nitrosamine formation pathway revisited: the importance of chloramine speciation and dissolved oxygen. Environ. Sci. Technol. 40, 6007-6014 (2006).
20. Mitch, W. A. & Sedlak, D. L. Formation of N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) from dimethylamine during chlorination. Environ. Sci. Tech. 36, 588-595 (2002).
21. Choi, J. & Valentine, R. L. Formation of N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) from reaction of monochloramine: a new disinfection by-product. Water Res. 36, 817-824 (2002).
22. Challis, B. C. & Kyrtopoulos, S. A. The chemistry of nitroso-compounds. Part 11. Nitrosation of amines by the two-phase interaction of amines in solution with gaseous oxides of nitrogen. J. Chem. Soc., Perkin Trans. 1, 299-304 (1979).
23. Choi, J. & Valentine, R. L. N-Nitrosodimethylamine formation by free-chlorine-enhanced nitrosation of dimethylamine. Environ. Sci. Technol. 37, 4871-4876 (2003).
24. Schreiber, I. M. & Mitch, W. A. Enhanced nitrogenous disinfection byproduct formation near the breakpoint: implications for nitrification control. Environ. Sci. Technol. 41, 7039-7046 (2007).
25. Tricker, A., Pfundstein, B. & Preussmann, R. Nitrosable secondary amines: exogenous and endogenous exposure and nitrosation in vivo. ACS Symposium Series553, 93-101 (1994).
26. Mills, G. A., Walker, V. & Mughal, H. Quantitative determination of trimethylamine in urine by solidphase microextraction and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. J. Chromatogr. B: Biomed. Sci. Appl. 723, 281-285 (1999).
27. Mitch, W. A. & Sedlak, D. L. Characterization and fate of N-nitrosodimethylamine precursors in municipal wastewater treatment plants. Environ. Sci. Technol. 38, 1445-1454 (2004).
28. Mitch, W. A. & Schreiber, I. M. Degradation of tertiary alkylamines during chlorination/chloramination: implications for formation of aldehydes, nitriles, halonitroalkanes, and nitrosamines. Environ. Sci. Tech. 42, 4811-4817 (2008).
29. Han, K. & Kim, H. Optimization of analytical conditions for the determination of nitrosamines in chlorinated tap water by high performance liquid chromatography. Anal. Sci. Technol. 23, 551-559 (2010).
30. Cha, W., Fox, P. & Nalinakumari, B. High-performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection for aqueous analysis of nanogram-level N-nitrosodimethylamine. Anal. Chim. Acta566, 109-116 (2006).
31. KMOE. Total Nitrogen - Continuous Flow Analysis (ES 04303. 4) in Official Test Method for Water Quality, Korea Ministry of Environment (2007).
32. Dufour, A. P., Evans, O., Behymer, T. D. & Cantú, R. Water ingestion during swimming activities in a pool: a pilot study. J. Water Health4, 425-430 (2006).
33. U. S. EPA. Exposure Factors Handbook (External Review Draft): 2009 Update. U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC, EPA/600/R-09/052A (2009).
34. Brown, N. J. Health Hazards Manual: Wastewater Treatment Plant and Sewer Workers. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University, Chemical Hazard Information Program, http://digitalcommons. ilr. cornell. edu/manuals/2 (1997).
35. ATSDR, Toxicological Profile for N-nitrosodimethylamine. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR) U. S. Public Health Service in collaboration with the U. S. Environmental Protection Agency (1989).
36. Thomas, R. G. Volatilization from water, in Handbook of Chemical Property Estimation Methods: Environmental Behavior of Organic Compounds (eds Lyman, W. J., Reehl, W. F. & Rodenblatt, D. H.) 15-27 (McGraw-Hill, New York, 1982).
37. Mitragotri, S. Modeling skin permeability to hydrophilic and hydrophobic solutes based on four permeation pathways. J. Control Release86, 69-92 (2003).
38. U. S. EPA. Dermal Exposure Assessment: A Summary of EPA Approaches. U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC, EPA/600/R-07/040F (2007).
39. Xu, X. & Weisel, C. P. Dermal uptake of chloroform and haloketones during bathing. J. Expo. Anal. Environ. Epidemiol. 15, 289-296 (2005).
40. Plumlee, M. H. et al. N-Nitrosodimethylamine(NDMA) removal by reverse osmosis and UV treatment and analysis via LC-MS/MS. Water Res. 42, 347-355 (2008).
41. Fleming, E. C. et al. Removal of N-nitrosodimethylamine from waters using physical-chemical techniques. J. Hazard. Mater. 51, 151-164 (1996).