Practice guidelines for management of the difficult airway: An updated report by the American Society of Anesthesiologists Task Force on Management of the Difficult Airway

Anesthesiology

Volumn 118, Issue 2, 2013, Pages 251-270

  Apfelbaum, Jeffrey L ^a   Hagberg, Carin A ^a,b   Caplan, Robert A ^c   Connis, Richard T ^c   Nickinovich, David G ^c   Benumof, Jonathan L ^c   Berry, Frederic A ^c   Blitt, Casey D ^c   Bode, Robert H ^c   Cheney, Frederick W ^c   Guidry, Orin F ^c   Ovassapian, Andranik ^a  

^a Task Force on Management of the Difficult Airway   (United States)

^b Task Force on Management of the Difficult Airway   (United States)

^c NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ABNORMAL RESPIRATORY SOUND; AIRWAY OBSTRUCTION; AMBIENT AIR; ANESTHESIST; ASPIRATION; ASSISTED VENTILATION; BLEEDING; BRAIN INJURY; CARDIOPULMONARY ARREST; CYANOSIS; DEATH; EDEMA; ENDOTRACHEAL INTUBATION; ENDOTRACHEAL TUBE; ESOPHAGUS PERFORATION; EXTUBATION; FACE MASK; FOLLOW UP; HUMAN; HYPERCAPNIA; HYPOXEMIA; INJURY; INTUBATION; LARYNGEAL MASK; LARYNGOSCOPY; LARYNX TUMOR; MEDICAL HISTORY; MEDICAL SOCIETY; OXYGEN SATURATION; PHYSICAL EXAMINATION; POSTANESTHESIA CARE; PRACTICE GUIDELINE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RANDOMIZED CONTROLLED TRIAL (TOPIC); RESPIRATION CONTROL; RESPIRATORY TRACT DISEASE; REVIEW; SLEEP DISORDERED BREATHING; SYSTEMATIC REVIEW; TUBE; VOCAL CORD;

AIRWAY MANAGEMENT; CONSENSUS; EVIDENCE-BASED MEDICINE; FIBER OPTIC TECHNOLOGY; HEALTH CARE SURVEYS; HUMANS; INTUBATION, INTRATRACHEAL; LARYNGOSCOPY; PHYSICAL EXAMINATION; POSTOPERATIVE CARE; TRACHEA;

EID: 84872861140     PISSN: 00033022     EISSN: 15281175     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1097/ALN.0b013e31827773b2     Document Type: Review

References (130)

1. Domino KB, Posner KL, Caplan RA, Cheney FW: Airway injury during anesthesia: A closed claims analysis. Anesthesiology 1999; 91:1703-11
2. Ezri T, Medalion B, Weisenberg M, Szmuk P, Warters RD, Charuzi I: Increased body mass index per se is not a predictor of difficult laryngoscopy. Can J Anaesth 2003; 50:179-83
3. Heinrich S, Birkholz T, Ihmsen H, Irouschek A, Ackermann A, Schmidt J: Incidence and predictors of difficult laryngoscopy in 11,219 pediatric anesthesia procedures. Paediatr Anaesth 2012; 22:729-36
4. Juvin P, Lavaut E, Dupont H, Lefevre P, Demetriou M, Dumoulin JL, Desmonts JM: Difficult tracheal intubation is more common in obese than in lean patients. Anesth Analg 2003; 97:595-600
5. Langeron O, Masso E, Huraux C, Guggiari M, Bianchi A, Coriat P, Riou B: Prediction of difficult mask ventilation. Anesthesiology 2000; 92:1229-36
6. Rocke DA, Murray WB, Rout CC, Gouws E: Relative risk analysis of factors associated with difficult intubation in obstetric anesthesia. Anesthesiology 1992; 77:67-73
7. Azizkhan RG, Dudgeon DL, Buck JR, Colombani PM, Yaster M, Nichols D, Civin C, Kramer SS, Haller JA Jr: Life-threatening airway obstruction as a complication to the management of mediastinal masses in children. J Pediatr Surg 1985; 20:816-22
8. Ferrari LR, Bedford RF: General anesthesia prior to treatment of anterior mediastinal masses in pediatric cancer patients. Anesthesiology 1990; 72:991-5
9. Buckland RW, Pedley J: Lingual thyroid-a threat to the airway. Anaesthesia 2000; 55:1103-5
10. Coonan TJ, Hope CE, Howes WJ, Holness RO, MacInnis EL: Ankylosis of the temporo-mandibular joint after temporal craniotomy: A cause of difficult intubation. Can Anaesth Soc J 1985; 32:158-60
11. Hill CM: Death following dental clearance in a patient suffering from ankylosing spondylitis-a case report with discussion on management of such problems. Br J Oral Surg 1980; 18:73-6
12. Lee HC, Andree RA: Cervical spondylosis and difficult intubation. Anesth Analg 1979; 58:434-5
13. Miyabe M, Dohi S, Homma E: Tracheal intubation in an infant with Treacher-Collins syndrome-pulling out the tongue by a forceps. Anesthesiology 1985; 62:213-4
14. Nagamine Y, Kurahashi K: The use of three-dimensional computed tomography images for anticipated difficult intubation airway evaluation of a patient with Treacher Collins syndrome. Anesth Analg 2007; 105:626-8
15. Nakazawa K, Ikeda D, Ishikawa S, Makita K: A case of difficult airway due to lingual tonsillar hypertrophy in a patient with Down's syndrome. Anesth Analg 2003; 97: 704-5
16. Ramamani M, Ponnaiah M, Bhaskar S, Rai E: An uncommon cause of unanticipated difficult airway. Paediatr Anaesth 2009; 19:643-5
17. Rasch DK, Browder F, Barr M, Greer D: Anaesthesia for Treacher Collins and Pierre Robin syndromes: A report of three cases. Can Anaesth Soc J 1986; 33(3 Pt 1):364-70
18. Roa NL, Moss KS: Treacher-Collins syndrome with sleep apnea: Anesthetic considerations. Anesthesiology 1984; 60:71-3
19. Rose DK, Cohen MM: The airway: Problems and predictions in 18,500 patients. Can J Anaesth 1994; 41(5 Pt 1):372-83
20. Tremblay MH, Williams S, Robitaille A, Drolet P: Poor visualization during direct laryngoscopy and high upper lip bite test score are predictors of difficult intubation with the GlideScope videolaryngoscope. Anesth Analg 2008; 106:1495-500
21. Wilson ME, Spiegelhalter D, Robertson JA, Lesser P: Predicting difficult intubation. Br J Anaesth 1988; 61:211-6
22. Aoi Y, Kamiya Y, Shioda M, Furuya R, Yamada Y: Preanesthetic evaluation can play a crucial role in the determination of airway management in a child with oropharyngeal tumor. J Anesth 2006; 20:215-9
23. Bellhouse CP, Doré C: Criteria for estimating likelihood of difficulty of endotracheal intubation with the Macintosh laryngoscope. Anaesth Intensive Care 1988; 16:329-37
24. Daum RE, Jones DJ: Fibreoptic intubation in Klippel-Feil syndrome. Anaesthesia 1988; 43:18-21
25. Fahy L, Horton WA, Charters P: Factor analysis in patients with a history of failed tracheal intubation during pregnancy. Br J Anaesth 1990; 65:813-5
26. Heindel DJ: Deep neck abscesses in adults: Management of a difficult airway. Anesth Analg 1987; 66:774-6
27. Kawai T, Shimozato K, Ochiai S: Elongated styloid process as a cause of difficult intubation. J Oral Maxillofac Surg 1990; 48:1225-8
28. Keenan MA, Stiles CM, Kaufman RL: Acquired laryngeal deviation associated with cervical spine disease in erosive polyarticular arthritis. Use of the fiberoptic bronchoscope in rheumatoid disease. Anesthesiology 1983; 58:441-9
29. Lyons G: Failed intubation. Six years' experience in a teaching maternity unit. Anaesthesia 1985; 40:759-62
30. Murashima K, Fukutome T: Jaw thrust manoeuvre for repositioning the epiglottis down folded by the ILM. Anaesthesia 2000; 55:921-2
31. Pollard BA, El-Beheiry H: Pott's disease with unstable cervical spine, retropharyngeal cold abscess and progressive airway obstruction. Can J Anaesth 1999; 46:772-5
32. Sharwood-Smith GH: Difficulty in intubation. Calcified stylohyoid ligament. Anaesthesia 1976; 31:508-10
33. White A, Kander PL: Anatomical factors in difficult direct laryngoscopy. Br J Anaesth 1975; 47:468-74
34. Haynes SR, Allsop JR, Gillies GW: Arterial oxygen saturation during induction of anaesthesia and laryngeal mask insertion: Prospective evaluation of four techniques. Br J Anaesth 1992; 68:519-22
35. Videira RL, Neto PP, do Amaral RV, Freeman JA: Preoxygenation in children: For how long? Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 1992; 36:109-11
36. Xue FS, Tong SY, Wang XL, Deng XM, An G: Study of the optimal duration of preoxygenation in children. J Clin Anesth 1995; 7:93-6
37. Baraka AS, Taha SK, Aouad MT, El-Khatib MF, Kawkabani NI: Preoxygenation: Comparison of maximal breathing and tidal volume breathing techniques. Anesthesiology 1999; 91:612-6
38. Chiron B, Mas C, Ferrandière M, Bonnard C, Fusciardi J, Mercier C, Laffon M: Standard preoxygenation vs two techniques in children. Paediatr Anaesth 2007; 17:963-7
39. Goldberg ME, Norris MC, Larijani GE, Marr AT, Seltzer JL: Preoxygenation in the morbidly obese: A comparison of two techniques. Anesth Analg 1989; 68:520-2
40. Norris MC, Dewan DM: Preoxygenation for cesarean section: a comparison of two techniques. Anesthesiology 1985; 62:827-9
41. Valentine SJ, Marjot R, Monk CR: Preoxygenation in the elderly: A comparison of the four-maximal-breath and threeminute techniques. Anesth Analg 1990; 71:516-9
42. Gambee AM, Hertzka RE, Fisher DM: Preoxygenation techniques: Comparison of three minutes and four breaths. Anesth Analg 1987; 66:468-70
43. Hoffman C, Nakamoto D, Okal R, Clochesy JM: Effect of transport time and FiO2 on SpO2 during transport from the OR to the PACU. Nurse Anesth 1991; 2:119-25
44. Mathes DD, Conaway MR, Ross WT: Ambulatory surgery: Room air versus nasal cannula oxygen during transport after general anesthesia. Anesth Analg 2001; 93:917-21
45. Papageorge MB, Hunter MJ, Norris LH, Rosenberg MB: Supplemental oxygen after outpatient oral and maxillofacial surgery. Anesth Prog 1992; 39:24-7
46. Patel R, Norden J, Hannallah RS: Oxygen administration prevents hypoxemia during post-anesthetic transport in children. Anesthesiology 1988; 69:616-8
47. Smith DC, Crul JF: Early postoperative hypoxia during transport. Br J Anaesth 1988; 61:625-7
48. Vegfors M, Cederholm I, Lennmarken C, Löfström JB: Should oxygen be administered after laparoscopy in healthy patients? Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 1988; 32:350-2
49. Cohn AI, Zornow MH: Awake endotracheal intubation in patients with cervical spine disease: A comparison of the Bullard laryngoscope and the fiberoptic bronchoscope. Anesth Analg 1995; 81:1283-6
50. Larson SM, Parks DH: Managing the difficult airway in patients with burns of the head and neck. J Burn Care Rehabil 1988; 9:55-6
51. Ovassapian A, Krejcie TC, Yelich SJ, Dykes MH: Awake fibreoptic intubation in the patient at high risk of aspiration. Br J Anaesth 1989; 62:13-6
52. Reasoner DK, Warner DS, Todd MM, Hunt SW, Kirchner J: A comparison of anesthetic techniques for awake intubation in neurosurgical patients. J Neurosurg Anesthesiol 1995; 7:94-9
53. Sidhu VS, Whitehead EM, Ainsworth QP, Smith M, Calder I: A technique of awake fibreoptic intubation. Experience in patients with cervical spine disease. Anaesthesia 1993; 48:910-3
54. Asai T, Matsumoto H, Shingu K: Awake tracheal intubation through the intubating laryngeal mask. Can J Anaesth 1999; 46:182-4
55. Dimitriou VK, Zogogiannis ID, Liotiri DG: Awake tracheal intubation using the Airtraq laryngoscope: A case series. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 2009; 53:964-7
56. Edwards RM, Hunt TL: Blind nasal intubation in an awake patient for caesarian section. Anaesth Intensive Care 1982; 10:151-3
57. McCrirrick A, Pracilio JA: Awake intubation: A new technique. Anaesthesia 1991; 46:661-3
58. Palmer JH, Ball DR: Awake tracheal intubation with the intubating laryngeal mask in a patient with diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis. Anaesthesia 2000; 55:70-4
59. Parnell JD, Mills J: Awake intubation using fast-track laryngeal mask airway as an alternative to fiberoptic bronchoscopy: A case report. AANA J 2006; 74:429-31
60. Suzuki A, Toyama Y, Iwasaki H, Henderson J: Airtraq for awake tracheal intubation. Anaesthesia 2007; 62:746-7
61. Wong JK, Tongier WK, Armbruster SC, White PF: Use of the intubating laryngeal mask airway to facilitate awake orotracheal intubation in patients with cervical spine disorders. J Clin Anesth 1999; 11:346-8
62. Aziz MF, Dillman D, Fu R, Brambrink AM: Comparative effectiveness of the C-MAC video laryngoscope versus direct laryngoscopy in the setting of the predicted difficult airway. Anesthesiology 2012; 116:629-36
63. Enomoto Y, Asai T, Arai T, Kamishima K, Okuda Y: Pentax-AWS, a new videolaryngoscope, is more effective than the Macintosh laryngoscope for tracheal intubation in patients with restricted neck movements: A randomized comparative study. Br J Anaesth 2008; 100:544-8
64. Jungbauer A, Schumann M, Brunkhorst V, Börgers A, Groeben H: Expected difficult tracheal intubation: A prospective comparison of direct laryngoscopy and video laryngoscopy in 200 patients. Br J Anaesth 2009; 102:546-50
65. Koh JC, Lee JS, Lee YW, Chang CH: Comparison of the laryngeal view during intubation using Airtraq and Macintosh laryngoscopes in patients with cervical spine immobilization and mouth opening limitation. Korean J Anesthesiol 2010; 59:314-8
66. Lim Y, Yeo SW: A comparison of the GlideScope with the Macintosh laryngoscope for tracheal intubation in patients with simulated difficult airway. Anaesth Intensive Care 2005; 33:243-7
67. Malik MA, Maharaj CH, Harte BH, Laffey JG: Comparison of Macintosh, Truview EVO2, Glidescope, and Airwayscope laryngoscope use in patients with cervical spine immobilization. Br J Anaesth 2008; 101:723-30
68. Malik MA, Subramaniam R, Maharaj CH, Harte BH, Laffey JG: Randomized controlled trial of the Pentax AWS, Glidescope, and Macintosh laryngoscopes in predicted difficult intubation. Br J Anaesth 2009; 103:761-8
69. Robitaille A, Williams SR, Tremblay MH, Guilbert F, Thériault M, Drolet P: Cervical spine motion during tracheal intubation with manual in-line stabilization: Direct laryngoscopy versus GlideScope videolaryngoscopy. Anesth Analg 2008; 106: 935-41
70. Serocki G, Bein B, Scholz J, Dörges V: Management of the predicted difficult airway: A comparison of conventional blade laryngoscopy with video-assisted blade laryngoscopy and the GlideScope. Eur J Anaesthesiol 2010; 27:24-30
71. Aziz MF, Healy D, Kheterpal S, Fu RF, Dillman D, Brambrink AM: Routine clinical practice effectiveness of the Glidescope in difficult airway management: An analysis of 2,004 Glidescope intubations, complications, and failures from two institutions. Anesthesiology 2011; 114:34-41
72. Cooper RM: Complications associated with the use of the GlideScope videolaryngoscope. Can J Anaesth 2007; 54:54-7
73. Hirabayashi Y: Pharyngeal injury related to GlideScope videolaryngoscope. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 2007; 137: 175-6
74. Malik AM, Frogel JK: Anterior tonsillar pillar perforation during GlideScope video laryngoscopy. Anesth Analg 2007; 104:1610-1; discussion 1611
75. Vincent RD Jr, Wimberly MP, Brockwell RC, Magnuson JS: Soft palate perforation during orotracheal intubation facilitated by the GlideScope videolaryngoscope. J Clin Anesth 2007; 19:619-21
76. Aro L, Takki S, Aromaa U: Technique for difficult intubation. Br J Anaesth 1971; 43:1081-3
77. Carr RJ, Belani KG: Clinical assessment of the Augustine Guide for endotracheal intubation. Anesth Analg 1994; 78:983-7
78. Kidd JF, Dyson A, Latto IP: Successful difficult intubation. Use of the gum elastic bougie. Anaesthesia 1988; 43:437-8
79. Krafft P, Fitzgerald R, Pernerstorfer T, Kapral S, Weinstabl C: A new device for blind oral intubation in routine and difficult airway management. Eur J Anaesthesiol 1994; 11:207-12
80. MacQuarrie K, Hung OR, Law JA: Tracheal intubation using Bullard laryngoscope for patients with a simulated difficult airway. Can J Anaesth 1999; 46:760-5
81. Rao TL, Mathru M, Gorski DW, Salem MR: Experience with a new intubation guide for difficult tracheal intubation. Crit Care Med 1982; 10:882-3
82. deLima LG, Bishop MJ: Lung laceration after tracheal extubation over a plastic tube changer. Anesth Analg 1991; 73:350-1
83. Fetterman D, Dubovoy A, Reay M: Unforeseen esophageal misplacement of airway exchange catheter leading to gastric perforation. Anesthesiology 2006; 104:1111-2
84. Augoustides JG, Groff BE, Mann DG, Johansson JS: Difficult airway management after carotid endarterectomy: Utility and limitations of the Laryngeal Mask Airway. J Clin Anesth 2007; 19:218-21
85. Fundingsland BW, Benumof JL: Difficulty using a laryngeal mask airway in a patient with lingual tonsil hyperplasia. Anesthesiology 1996; 84:1265-6
86. Kidani DC, Shah NK: The use of a laryngeal mask airway after a prolonged suspension laryngoscopy to preserve a vocal cord fat graft. Anesth Analg 2007; 105:1753-4
87. Mizushima A, Wardall GJ, Simpson DL: The laryngeal mask airway in infants. Anaesthesia 1992; 47:849-51
88. Rowbottom SJ, Simpson DL, Grubb D: The laryngeal mask airway in children. A fibreoptic assessment of positioning. Anaesthesia 1991; 46:489-91
89. Parmet JL, Colonna-Romano P, Horrow JC, Miller F, Gonzales J, Rosenberg H: The laryngeal mask airway reliably provides rescue ventilation in cases of unanticipated difficult tracheal intubation along with difficult mask ventilation. Anesth Analg 1998; 87:661-5
90. Allen JG, Flower EA: The Brain laryngeal mask. An alternative to difficult intubation. Br Dent J 1990; 168:202-4
91. Asai T, Fujise K, Uchida M: Use of the laryngeal mask in a child with tracheal stenosis. Anesthesiology 1991; 75:903-4
92. Beveridge ME: Laryngeal mask anaesthesia for repair of cleft palate. Anaesthesia 1989; 44:656-7
93. Nagai K, Sakuramoto C, Goto F: Unilateral hypoglossal nerve paralysis following the use of the laryngeal mask airway. Anaesthesia 1994; 49:603-4
94. Winterhalter M, Kirchhoff K, Gröschel W, Lüllwitz E, Heermann R, Hoy L, Heine J, Hagberg C, Piepenbrock S: The laryngeal tube for difficult airway management: A prospective investigation in patients with pharyngeal and laryngeal tumours. Eur J Anaesthesiol 2005; 22:678-82
95. Frappier J, Guenoun T, Journois D, Philippe H, Aka E, Cadi P, Silleran-Chassany J, Safran D: Airway management using the intubating laryngeal mask airway for the morbidly obese patient. Anesth Analg 2003; 96:1510-5
96. Fukutome T, Amaha K, Nakazawa K, Kawamura T, Noguchi H: Tracheal intubation through the intubating laryngeal mask airway (LMA-Fastrach) in patients with difficult airways. Anaesth Intensive Care 1998; 26:387-91
97. Kapila A, Addy EV, Verghese C, Brain AI: The intubating laryngeal mask airway: An initial assessment of performance. Br J Anaesth 1997; 79:710-3
98. Kihara S, Watanabe S, Brimacombe J, Taguchi N, Yaguchi Y, Yamasaki Y: Segmental cervical spine movement with the intubating laryngeal mask during manual in-line stabilization in patients with cervical pathology undergoing cervical spine surgery. Anesth Analg 2000; 91:195-200
99. Nakazawa K, Tanaka N, Ishikawa S, Ohmi S, Ueki M, Saitoh Y, Makita K, Amaha K: Using the intubating laryngeal mask airway (LMA-Fastrach) for blind endotracheal intubation in patients undergoing cervical spine operation. Anesth Analg 1999; 89:1319-21
100. Shung J, Avidan MS, Ing R, Klein DC, Pott L: Awake intubation of the difficult airway with the intubating laryngeal mask airway. Anaesthesia 1998; 53:645-9
101. Wakeling HG, Nightingale J: The intubating laryngeal mask airway does not facilitate tracheal intubation in the presence of a neck collar in simulated trauma. Br J Anaesth 2000; 84:254-6
102. Asai T, Eguchi Y, Murao K, Niitsu T, Shingu K: Intubating laryngeal mask for fibreoptic intubation-particularly useful during neck stabilization. Can J Anaesth 2000; 47:843-8
103. Bhatnagar S, Mishra S, Jha RR, Singhal AK, Bhatnagar N: The LMA Fastrach facilitates fibreoptic intubation in oral cancer patients. Can J Anaesth 2005; 52:641-5
104. Bellhouse CP: An angulated laryngoscope for routine and difficult tracheal intubation. Anesthesiology 1988; 69: 126-9
105. Gabbott DA: Laryngoscopy using the McCoy laryngoscope after application of a cervical collar. Anaesthesia 1996; 51:812-4
106. Blanco G, Melman E, Cuairan V, Moyao D, Ortiz-Monasterio F: Fibreoptic nasal intubation in children with anticipated and unanticipated difficult intubation. Paediatr Anaesth 2001; 11:49-53
107. Borland LM, Casselbrant M: The Bullard laryngoscope. A new indirect oral laryngoscope (pediatric version). Anesth Analg 1990; 70:105-8
108. Delaney KA, Hessler R: Emergency flexible fiberoptic nasotracheal intubation: A report of 60 cases. Ann Emerg Med 1988; 17:919-26
109. Fuchs G, Schwarz G, Baumgartner A, Kaltenböck F, Voit-Augustin H, Planinz W: Fiberoptic intubation in 327 neurosurgical patients with lesions of the cervical spine. J Neurosurg Anesthesiol 1999; 11:11-6
110. Hakala P, Randell T, Valli H: Laryngoscopy and fibreoptic intubation in acromegalic patients. Br J Anaesth 1998; 80:345-7
111. Larson SM, Parks DH: Managing the difficult airway in patients with burns of the head and neck. J Burn Care Rehabil 1988; 9:55-6
112. Ovassapian A, Krejcie TC, Yelich SJ, Dykes MH: Awake fibreoptic intubation in the patient at high risk of aspiration. Br J Anaesth 1989; 62:13-6
113. Reasoner DK, Warner DS, Todd MM, Hunt SW, Kirchner J: A comparison of anesthetic techniques for awake intubation in neurosurgical patients. J Neurosurg Anesth 1995; 7:94-9
114. Rogers SN, Benumof JL: New and easy techniques for fiberoptic endoscopy-aided tracheal intubation. Anesthesiology 1983; 59:569-72
115. Sidhu V, Whitehead E, Ainsworth Q, Smith M, Calder I: A technique of awake fibreoptic intubation: Experience in patients with cervical spine disesae. Anaesthesia 1993; 48:910-3
116. Smith M, Calder I, Crockard A, Isert P, Nicol ME: Oxygen saturation and cardiovascular changes during fibreoptic intubation under general anaesthesia. Anaesthesia 1992; 47:158-61
117. Takenaka I, Aoyama K, Kadoya T, Sata T, Shigematsu A: Fibreoptic assessment of laryngeal aperture in patients with difficult laryngoscopy. Can J Anaesth 1999; 46:226-31
118. Fridrich P, Frass M, Krenn CG, Weinstabl C, Benumof JL, Krafft P: The UpsherScope in routine and difficult airway management: A randomized, controlled clinical trial. Anesth Analg 1997; 85:1377-81
119. Smith CE, Pinchak AB, Sidhu TS, Radesic BP, Pinchak AC, Hagen JF: Evaluation of tracheal intubation difficulty in patients with cervical spine immobilization: Fiberoptic (WuScope) versus conventional laryngoscopy. Anesthesiology 1999; 91:1253-9
120. Watts AD, Gelb AW, Bach DB, Pelz DM: Comparison of the Bullard and Macintosh laryngoscopes for endotracheal intubation of patients with a potential cervical spine injury. Anesthesiology 1997; 87:1335-42
121. Ainsworth QP, Howells TH: Transilluminated tracheal intubation. Br J Anaesth 1989; 62:494-7
122. Dimitriou V, Voyagis GS, Brimacombe JR: Flexible lightwand-guided tracheal intubation with the intubating laryngeal mask Fastrach in adults after unpredicted failed laryngoscope-guided tracheal intubation. Anesthesiology 2002; 96:296-9
123. Holzman RS, Nargozian CD, Florence FB: Lightwand intubation in children with abnormal upper airways. Anesthesiology 1988; 69:784-7
124. Hung OR, Pytka S, Morris I, Murphy M, Stewart RD: Lightwand intubation: II-Clinical trial of a new lightwand for tracheal intubation in patients with difficult airways. Can J Anaesth 1995; 42:826-30
125. Weis FR, Hatton MN: Intubation by use of the light wand: Experience in 253 patients. J Oral Maxillofac Surg 1989; 47:577-80; discussion 581
126. Berns SD, Patel RI, Chamberlain JM: Oral intubation using a lighted stylet vs direct laryngoscopy in older children with cervical immobilization. Acad Emerg Med 1996; 3:34-40
127. Rhee KY, Lee JR, Kim J, Park S, Kwon WK, Han S: A comparison of lighted stylet (Surch-Lite) and direct laryngoscopic intubation in patients with high Mallampati scores. Anesth Analg 2009; 108:1215-9
128. Dohi S, Inomata S, Tanaka M, Ishizawa Y, Matsumiya N: End-tidal carbon dioxide monitoring during awake blind nasotracheal intubation. J Clin Anesth 1990; 2:415-9
129. Spencer RF, Rathmell JP, Viscomi CM: A new method for difficult endotracheal intubation: the use of a jet stylet introducer and capnography. Anesth Analg 1995; 81:1079-83
130. Williamson JA, Webb RK, Szekely S, Gillies ER, Dreosti AV: The Australian Incident Monitoring Study. Difficult intubation: An analysis of 2000 incident reports. Anaesth Intensive Care 1993; 21:602-7