What if religion is not special?

University of Chicago Law Review

Volumn 79, Issue 4, 2012, Pages 1351-1427

  Schwartzman, Micah ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF VIRGINIA   (United States)

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EID: 84872703982     PISSN: 00419494     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (346)

1. Frederick Schauer, Must Speech Be Special?, 78 Nw U L Rev 1284, 1306 (1983).
2. See Douglas Laycock, Religious Liberty as Liberty, 7 J Contemp Legal Issues 313, 316 (1996).
3. See Transcript of Oral Argument, Hosanna-Tabor Evangelical Lutheran Church and School v EEOC, No 10-533, 28, 37 (US Oct 5, 2011)
4. Hosanna-Tabor, 132 S Ct at 706.
5. Compare Johanns v Livestock Marketing Association, 544 US 550, 562 (2005)
6. School District of Abington Township, Pennsylvania v Schempp, 374 US 203, 223 (1963) (rejecting prayer in public schools);
7. Edwards v Aguillard, 482 US 578, 593 (1987)
8. McCreary County v ACLU, 545 US 844, 861 (2005)
9. See Arizona Christian School Tuition Organization v Winn, 131 S Ct 1436, 1446 (2011)
10. See Micah Schwartzman, Conscience, Speech, and Money, 97 Va L Rev 317, 321-22 (2011)
11. See, for example, Alan E. Brownstein, The Religion Clauses as Mutually Reinforcing Mandates: Why the Arguments for Rigorously Enforcing the Free Exercise Clause and Establishment Clause Are Stronger When Both Clauses Are Taken Seriously, 32 Cardozo L Rev 1701, 1705 (2011);
12. Chad Flanders, The Possibility of a Secular First Amendment, 26 Quinnipiac L Rev 257, 301 (2008);
13. Michael W. McConnell, The Problem of Singling Out Religion, 50 DePaul L Rev 1, 3 (2000);
14. John H. Garvey, What Are Freedoms For? 139 (Harvard 1996);
15. Abner S. Greene, The Political Balance of the Religion Clauses, 102 Yale L J 1611, 1613 (1993).
16. See, for example, Brian Leiter, Why Tolerate Religion? 54-67 (Princeton 2012);
17. Christopher L. Eisgruber and Lawrence G. Sager, Religious Freedom and the Constitution 51-77 (Harvard 2007);
18. Anthony Ellis, What Is Special about Religion?, 25 L & Phil 219, 238 (2006);
19. William P. Marshall, What Is the Matter with Equality?: An Assessment of the Equal Treatment of Religion and Nonreligion in First Amendment Jurisprudence, 75 Ind L J 193, 202-07 (2000);
20. Frederick Mark Gedicks, An Unfirm Foundation: The Regrettable Indefensibility of Religious Exemptions, 20 U Ark Little Rock L J 555, 572-74 (1998).
21. Lemon v Kurtzman, 403 US 602, 612 (1971).
22. McCreary County v ACLU, 545 US 844, 861 (2005)
23. See also Andrew Koppelman, Secular Purpose, 88 Va L Rev 87, 95-99 (2002).
24. see John Rawls, Political Liberalism 213-54 (Columbia 1996);
25. Robert Audi, Religious Commitment and Secular Reason 81-104 (Cambridge 2000);
26. Jonathan Quong, Liberalism without Perfection 110 (Oxford 2011).
27. see Kent Greenawalt, Religious Convictions and Political Choice 30-48 (Oxford 1988);
28. Paul Weithman, Religion and the Obligations of Citizenship 36-66 (Cambridge 2002);
29. Christopher J. Eberle, Religious Conviction in Liberal Politics 71-78 (Cambridge 2002).
30. See Richard C. Schragger, The Relative Irrelevance of the Establishment Clause, 89 Tex L Rev 583, 590 (2011)
31. Michael W. McConnell, Secular Reason and the Misguided Attempt to Exclude Religious Argument from Democratic Deliberation, 1 J L Phil & Culture 159 (2007);
32. Nicholas Wolterstorff, Why We Should Reject What Liberalism Tells Us about Speaking and Acting in Public for Religious Reasons, in Paul J. Weithman, ed, Religion and Contemporary Liberalism 162 (Notre Dame 1997).
33. Michael W. McConnell, Accommodation of Religion, 1985 S Ct Rev 1, 8-24
34. Ira C. Lupu, Reconstructing the Establishment Clause: The Case against Discretionary Accommodation, 140 U Pa L Rev 555, 558-59 (1991)
35. William P. Marshall, In Defense of Smith and Free Exercise Revisionism, 58 U Chi L Rev 308, 309 (1991)
36. Steven G. Gey, Why Is Religion Special? Reconsidering the Accommodation of Religion under the Religion Clauses of the First Amendment, 52 U Pitt L Rev 75, 79 (1990)
37. Lemon, 403 US at 612.
38. McCreary County 545 US 860
39. Santa Fe Independent School District v Doe, 530 US 290, 315 (2000)
40. Stone v Graham, 449 US 39, 41 (1980)
41. Edwards v Aguillard, 482 US 578, 593 (1987)
42. Doe v School Board of Ouachita Parish, 274 F3d 289, 294 (5th Cir 2001)
43. May v Cooperman, 780 F2d 240, 252-53 (3d Cir 1985)
44. See also Koppelman, 88 Va L Rev at 95
45. Varnum v Brien, 763 NW2d 862, 905 (Iowa 2009)
46. Perry v Schwarzenegger, 704 F Supp 2d 921, 930-31, 1001-02
47. Perry v Brown, 671 F3d 1052, 1096 (9th Cir 2012).
48. See McConnell, 1 J L Phil & Culture at 161 (cited in note 19);
49. Scott C. Idleman, Religious Premises, Legislative Judgments, and the Establishment Clause, 12 Cornell J L & Pub Pol 1, 6-7 (2002).
50. See Edwards, 482 US at 599
51. See McCreary County, 545 US at 860
52. See Micah Schwartzman, The Sincerity of Public Reason, 19 J Polit Phil 375, 386 n 29
53. See Wallace v Jaffree, 472 US 38, 56 (1985)
54. See McCreary County, 545 US at 864
55. Santa Fe, 530 US at 308
56. Lynch v Donnelly, 465 US 668, 690-91 (1984)
57. See Wallace, 472 US at 56-60
58. See Koppelman, 88 Va L Rev at 114-17
59. Greene, 102 Yale L J at 1623
60. Caleb Nelson, What Is Textualism?, 91 Va L Rev 347, 349 (2005)
61. Edwards, 482 US at 636
62. Michael J. Perry, Religion in Politics: Constitutional and Moral Perspectives 34 (Oxford 1997)
63. See Koppelman, 88 Va L Rev at 113-17
64. See, for example, McCreary County, 545 US at 862
65. McConnell, 1 J L Phil & Culture at 165
66. see Kim Forde-Mazrui, Tradition as Justification: The Case of Opposite-Sex Marriage, 78 U Chi L Rev 281, 289 (2011);
67. David Luban, Legal Traditionalism, 43 Stan L Rev 1035, 1036 (1991).
68. See, for example, Michael W. McConnell, Religious Conviction and Political Participation, 20 Regent U L Rev 313, 316 (2008);
69. Idleman, 12 Cornell J L & Pub Pol at 71-82
70. See, for example, Greenawalt, Religious Convictions and Political Choice at 150, 155
71. Gregory P. Magarian, Religious Argument, Free Speech Theory, and Political Dynamism, 86 Notre Dame L Rev 119, 168-69 (2011)
72. Micah Schwartzman, The Completeness of Public Reason, 3 Polit Phil & Econ 151, 203-08 (2004)
73. Schwartzman, 19 J Polit Phil at 393-98
74. See also Ronald C. Den Otter, Judicial Review in an Age of Moral Pluralism 200-30 (Cambridge 2009)
75. McConnell, 1 J L Phil & Culture at 171-73
76. Wolterstorff, Why We Should Reject What Liberalism Tells Us at 175
77. Idleman, 12 Cornell J L & Pub Pol at 72-78
78. Michael W. McConnell, Believers as Equal Citizens, in Nancy L. Rosenblum, ed, Obligations of Citizenship and Demands of Faith 90, 105 (Princeton 2000).
79. McConnell, 1 J L Phil & Culture at 168-71
80. Eberle, Religious Convictions in Liberal Politics at 199-201
81. Larry Alexander, Liberalism, Religion, and the Unity of Epistemology, 30 San Diego L Rev 763, 764-80 (1993).
82. See McConnell, 1985 S Ct Rev at 57-59
83. Michael W. McConnell, Accommodation of Religion: An Update and a Response to the Critics, 60 Geo Wash L Rev 685, 687-88 (1992).
84. See McConnell, 60 Geo Wash L Rev at 708-09
85. - 494 US 872 (1990).
86. See Michael W. McConnell, Free Exercise Revisionism and the Smith Decision, 57 U Chi L Rev 1109, 1132 (1990);
87. Douglas Laycock, Peyote, Wine and the First Amendment, 1989 Christian Century 876, 879-80.
88. McConnell, 60 Geo Wash L Rev at 689-94
89. See McConnell, 50 DePaul L Rev at 28-29
90. Michael Stokes Paulsen, God Is Great, Garvey Is Good: Making Sense of Religious Freedom, 72 Notre Dame L Rev 1597, 1611 (1997).
91. James Madison, Memorial and Remonstrance against Religious Assessments, in Jack N. Rakove, ed, Madison: Writings 29, 30
92. See John Locke, A Letter Concerning Toleration 46-48 (Hackett 1983)
93. See also Noah Feldman, The Intellectual Origins of the Establishment Clause, 77 NYU L Rev 346, 350 (2002)
94. See McConnell, 60 Geo Wash L Rev at 692
95. Garvey, What Are Freedoms For? at 52
96. Paulsen, 72 Notre Dame L Rev at 1624-25
97. See McConnell, 50 DePaul L Rev at 30 (cited in note 13).
98. See Michael W. McConnell, The Origins and Historical Understanding of Free Exercise of Religion, 103 Harv L Rev 1409, 1500 (1990);
99. Garvey, What Are Freedoms For? at 53-54
100. See Welsh v United States, 398 US 333, 340 (1970)
101. United States v Seeger, 380 US 163, 176 (1965)
102. Garvey, What Are Freedoms For? at 54
103. Paulsen, 72 Notre Dame L Rev at 1617-20
104. McConnell, 1985 S Ct Rev at 11-12
105. See Seeger, 380 US at 356-57
106. See McConnell, 60 Geo Wash L Rev at 711
107. - 406 US 205 (1972).
108. See Greene, 102 Yale L J at 1635
109. Abner S. Greene, Is Religion Special? A Rejoinder to Scott Idleman, 1994 U Ill L Rev 535, 535;
110. Abner S. Greene, Constitutional Reductionism, Rawls, and the Religion Clauses, 72 Fordham L Rev 2089, 2091 (2004).
111. See also Kathleen M. Sullivan, Religion and Liberal Democracy, 59 U Chi L Rev 195, 222 (1992)
112. See Greene, 102 Yale L J at 1613
113. See also Schwartzman, 19 J Polit Phil at 387-90
114. See Greene, 102 Yale L J at 1636
115. See Greene, 102 Yale L J at 1639
116. See Greene, 1994 U Ill L Rev at 539
117. See Greene, 1994 U Ill L Rev at 539
118. See Suzanna Sherry, Enlightening the Religion Clauses, 7 J Contemp Legal Issues 473, 478-82 (1996)
119. Gey, 52 U Pitt L Rev at 167
120. See Gey, 52 U Pitt L Rev at 181
121. See Gey, 52 U Pitt L Rev at 173
122. Suzanna Sherry, Religion and the Public Square: Making Democracy Safe for Religious Minorities, 47 DePaul L Rev 499, 501 (1998)
123. See William P. Marshall, The Other Side of Religion, 44 Hastings L J 843, 845-47 (1993).
124. Suzanna Sherry, Lee v. Weisman: Paradox Redux, 1992 S Ct Rev 123, 143.
125. See Laycock, 7 J Contemp Legal Issues at 313
126. Kent Greenawalt, 2 Religion and the Constitution: Establishment and Fairness 492 (Princeton 2008);
127. Christopher L. Eisgruber and Lawrence G. Sager, The Vulnerability of Conscience: The Constitutional Basis for Protecting Religious Conduct, 61 U Chi L Rev 1245, 1262 (1994).
128. See Gedicks, 20 U Ark Little Rock L J at 562-63
129. Marshall, 58 U Chi L Rev at 321
130. Sherry, 1992 S Ct Rev at 138
131. See Kent Greenawalt, 1 Religion and the Constitution: Free Exercise and Fairness 131 (Princeton 2006);
132. Gedicks, 20 U Ark Little Rock L J at 562 (cited in note 14).
133. William P. Marshall, The Inequality of Anti-establishment, 1993 BYU L Rev 63, 65.
134. See also Sherry, 1992 S Ct Rev at 138
135. Gey, 52 U Pitt L Rev at 79
136. See Marshall, 75 Ind L J at 203-04
137. Eisgruber and Sager, Religious Freedom and the Constitution at 96
138. Eisgruber and Sager, Religious Freedom and the Constitution at 52
139. See Eisgruber and Sager, 61 U Chi L Rev at 1292-93
140. See Eisgruber and Sager, 61 U Chi L Rev at 1292-93
141. Sager, Religious Freedom and the Constitution at 50
142. See also Ellis, 25 L & Phil at 241
143. Eisgruber and Sager, Religious Freedom and the Constitution at 103, 301 n 39
144. See Eisgruber and Sager, 61 U Chi L Rev at 1263
145. see Eisgruber and Sager, Religious Freedom and the Constitution at 9-14, 112-18
146. McConnell, 1 J L Phil & Culture at 160
147. McConnell, 50 DePaul L Rev at 10-11
148. Michael W. McConnell, A Response to Professor Marshall, 58 U Chi L Rev 329, 329-31 (1991).
149. McConnell, 50 DePaul L Rev at 10
150. See McConnell, 1 J L Phil & Culture at 160
151. see Caroline Mala Corbin, Nonbelievers and Government Speech, 97 Iowa L Rev 347, 350-51 (2012)
152. See Clayton v Place, 690 F Supp 850, 852
153. See Engel v Vitale, 370 US 421, 424 (1962)
154. School District of Abington Township, Pennsylvania v Schempp, 374 US 203, 205 (1963)
155. See Perry, Religion in Politics at 35-36
156. Schragger, 89 Tex L Rev at 590-92
157. McGowan v Maryland, 366 US 420, 426-27 (1961)
158. See also Koppelman, 88 Va L Rev at 150-51
159. See John H. Garvey, Free Exercise and the Values of Religious Liberty, 18 Conn L Rev 779, 798 (1986).
160. See also Paulsen, 72 Notre Dame L Rev at 1622
161. See Garvey, 18 Conn L Rev at 798
162. See, for example, G.A. Cohen, Luck and Equality, in Michael Otuska, ed, On the Currency of Egalitarian Justice, and Other Essays in Political Philosophy 116, 119
163. G.A. Cohen, On the Currency of Egalitarian Justice, 99 Ethics 906, 936-37 (1989)
164. See Marshall, 1993 BYU L Rev at 63-64
165. Sherry, 1992 S Ct Rev at 138
166. Compare Sherry, 1992 S Ct Rev at 143
167. 52 U Pitt L Rev at 184
168. Sherry, 7 J Contemp Legal Issues at 482
169. Gey, 52 U Pitt L Rev at 173-74
170. Sherry, 1992 S Ct Rev at 138
171. William P. Marshall, The Case against the Constitutionally Compelled Free Exercise Exemption, 40 Case W Res L Rev 357, 393 (1989).
172. Sherry, 1992 S Ct Rev at 138
173. Marshall, 58 U Chi L Rev at 320
174. See Gertz v Robert Welch, Inc, 418 US 323, 339-40
175. Police Department of the City of Chicago v Mosley, 408 US 92, 95-96 (1972)
176. See also Leslie Kendrick, Content Discrimination Revisited, 98 Va L Rev 232, 235 (2012).
177. See Pleasant Grove City, Utah v Summum, 555 US 460, 469 (2009)
178. Johanns v Livestock Marketing Association, 544 US 550, 553 (2005)
179. See Yossi Nehushtan, Religious Conscientious Exemptions, 30 L & Phil 143, 155-64 (2011)
180. See Marshall, 58 U Chi L Rev at 320-21
181. See William P. Marshall, Solving the Free Exercise Dilemma: Free Exercise as Expression, 67 Minn L Rev 545, 587 (1983)
182. Eisgruber and Sager, Religious Freedom and the Constitution at 104
183. See Marshall, 40 Case W Res L Rev at 384
184. See Marshall, 44 Hastings L J at 856-58
185. See Marshall, 58 U Chi L Rev at 321
186. Marshall, 1993 BYU L Rev at 69
187. See Bernard Spilka, et al, The Psychology of Religion: An Empirical Approach 411-79
188. See George Klosko, Democratic Procedures and Liberal Consensus 80-115 (Oxford 2004)
189. Marshall, 1993 BYU L Rev at 65
190. See Greene, 102 Yale L J at 1611, 1613
191. Jeremy Waldron, Law and Disagreement 109
192. Greene, 102 Yale L J at 1619-22
193. Sherry, 7 J Contemp Legal Issues at 478-79
194. Greene, 72 Fordham L Rev at 2095
195. Greene, 102 Yale L J at 1617
196. See Greene, 72 Fordham L Rev at 2097-98
197. See John Rawls, The Idea of Public Reason Revisited, in Samuel Freedom, ed, Collected Papers 573, 573 n 2
198. See Colin Bird, Mutual Respect and Neutral Justification, 107 Ethics 62, 75 (1996)
199. Rawls, Political Liberalism at 56-57
200. See also Quong, Liberalism without Perfection at 36-37
201. See Eberle, Religious Convictions in Liberal Politics at 30-35
202. Alexander, 30 San Diego L Rev at 795
203. See Quong, Liberalism without Perfection at 194-255
204. Audi, Religious Commitment at 61
205. See Welsh v United States, 398 US 333, 340 (1970);
206. United States v Seeger, 380 US 163, 176 (1965).
207. See Greene, 102 Yale L J at 1642-43
208. see Rawls, Political Liberalism at 137, 217
209. 690 F Supp 850 (WD Mo 1988)
210. Clayton, 690 F Supp at 856.
211. Clayton, 884 F2d at 379-81.
212. Clayton, 889 F2d at 195
213. See Eisgruber and Sager, Religious Freedom and the Constitution at 124-28
214. See Eisgruber and Sager, Religious Freedom and the Constitution at 126
215. The Clayton dissenters made exactly this argument. Clayton, 889 F2d at 196
216. See Thomas C. Berg, Can Religious Liberty Be Protected as Equality?, 85 Tex L Rev 1185, 1199 (2007)
217. See Koppelman, 88 Va L Rev at 163-65
218. Rawls, The Idea of Public Reason Revisited at 583
219. See Michael Perry, From Religious Freedom to Moral Freedom, 47 San Diego L Rev 993, 1001 (2010)
220. See generally Rawls, Political Liberalism
221. See also Quong, Liberalism without Perfection at 12-26
222. Schwartzman, 19 J Polit Phil at 375
223. Schwartzman, 3 Polit Phil & Econ at 193
224. See also Den Otter, Judicial Review at 200-30
225. See generally Rawls, The Idea of Public Reason Revisited (cited in note 150);
226. Jonathan Quong, On Public Reason, in Jon Mandle and David Reidy, eds, The Blackwell Companion to Rawls (forthcoming 2013)
227. See also Charles Larmore, Public Reason, in Samuel Freeman, ed, Cambridge Companion to Rawls 368, 368-93
228. Steven D. Smith, Foreordained Failure: The Quest for a Constitutional Principle of Religious Freedom (Oxford 1995);
229. But see Greenawalt, 2 Religion and the Constitution at 433-50
230. See Gerald F. Gaus, Justificatory Liberalism 156 (Oxford 1996)
231. Schwartzman, 3 Polit Phil & Econ at 197-98
232. Compare Amy Gutmann, Identity in Democracy 151-91 (Princeton 2004)
233. Leiter, Why Tolerate Religion? at 92-133
234. See Christopher L. Eisgruber and Lawrence G. Sager, Does It Matter What Religion Is?, 84 Notre Dame L Rev 807, 809 (2009)
235. See Milton R. Konvitz, Religious Liberty and Conscience: A Constitutional Inquiry 86-92 (Viking 1968)
236. See Lawrence B. Solum, We Are All Originalists Now, in Robert W. Bennett and Lawrence B. Solum, Constitutional Originalism: A Debate 1, 4 (Cornell 2011)
237. See Solum, We Are All Originalists Now at 4
238. See David A.J. Richards, Toleration and the Constitution 104-17 (Oxford 1986)
239. See McConnell, 103 Harv L Rev at 1492
240. John Witte Jr. and Joel A. Nichols, Religion and the American Constitutional Experiment 44 (Westview 3d ed 2011).
241. Kent Greenawalt, The Significance of Conscience, 47 San Diego L Rev 901, 913 (2010)
242. McConnell, 103 Harv L Rev at 1494
243. George C. Freeman III, The Misguided Search for the Constitutional Definition of "Religion," 71 Georgetown L J 1519, 1521-22 (1983)
244. The Concept of Religion, 107 Yale L J 791, 803 (1997)
245. See Witte and Nichols, Religion and the American Constitutional Experiment at 88-89 (cited in note 189)
246. McConnell, 103 Harv L Rev at 1483-84
247. See McConnell, 103 Harv L Rev at 1494-96
248. Freeman, 71 Georgetown L J at 1522-23
249. Freeman, 71 Georgetown L J at 1520
250. See Witte and Nichols, Religion and the American Constitutional Experiment at 102 (cited in note 189)
251. Greenawalt, 1 Religion and the Constitution at 130 n 28
252. See Greenawalt, 1 Religion and the Constitution at 149
253. Freeman, 71 Georgetown L J at 1521
254. See Noah Feldman, The Intellectual Origins of the Establishment Clause, 77 NYU L Rev 346, 376 (2002)
255. See Andrew Koppelman, Defending American Religious Neutrality 82
256. Compare McConnell, 103 Harv L Rev at 1410
257. Philip Hamburger, A Constitutional Right of Religious Exemption: A Historical Perspective, 60 Geo Wash L Rev 915, 916-17 (1992)
258. See McConnell, 103 Harv L Rev at 1500 (cited in note 60).
259. See Konvitz, Religious Liberty and Conscience at 99 (cited in note 182).
260. Randy E. Barnett, Restoring the Lost Constitution 259-61 (Princeton 2004)
261. See, for example, Richards, Toleration and the Constitution at 141
262. See McConnell, 103 Harv L Rev at 1492-93
263. W. Cole Durham Jr., Religious Liberty and the Call of Conscience, 42 DePaul L Rev 71, 87 (1993)
264. See Robert K. Vischer, Conscience and the Common Good: Reclaiming the Space between Person and State 155-78
265. See Leiter, Why Tolerate Religion? at 6
266. See Rawls, The Idea of Public Reason Revisited at 611-12
267. Douglas Laycock, The Religious Exemption Debate, 11 Rutgers J L & Religion 139, 170-71 (2009)
268. Nelson Tebbe, Nonbelievers, 97 Va L Rev 1111, 1156-57 (2011)
269. See James E. Ryan, Smith and the Religious Freedom Restoration Act: An Iconoclastic Assessment, 78 Va L Rev 1407, 1413-16 (1992)
270. See Rodney K. Smith, Conscience, Coercion and the Establishment of Religion: The Beginning of an End to the Wandering of a Wayward Judiciary, 43 Case W Res L Rev 917, 950 (1993)
271. See, for example, Marshall, 58 U Chi L Rev at 308-09
272. See Church of the Lukumi Babalu Aye, Inc v City of Hialeah, 508 US 520, 532 (1993)
273. Marshall, 40 Case W Res L Rev at 364-65
274. Marshall, 67 Minn L Rev at 546
275. Lino A. Graglia, Originalism and the Constitution: Does Originalism Always Provide the Answer?, 34 Harv J L & Pub Pol 73, 81 (2011)
276. See also Phillip I. Blumberg, Repressive Jurisprudence in the Early American Republic: The First Amendment and the Legacy of English Law 1, 321-37 (Cambridge 2010)
277. see Robert H. Bork, Neutral Principles and Some First Amendment Problems, 47 Ind L J 1, 20 (1971)
278. See also Leonard W. Levy, Blasphemy 400-23 (North Carolina 1995)
279. Consider James W. Nickel, Who Needs Freedom of Religion?, 76 U Colo L Rev 941, 943 (2005)
280. McConnell, 1 J L Phil & Culture at 161
281. See Elk Grove Unified School District v Newdow, 542 US 1, 49-50 (2004)
282. Steven D. Smith, The Jurisdictional Establishment Clause: A Reappraisal, 81 Notre Dame L Rev 1843, 1843-45 (2006).
283. See, for example, Wallace v Jaffree, 472 US 38, 113 (1985)
284. Robert L. Cord, Separation of Church and State: Historical Fact and Current Fiction 5 (Lamberth 1982)
285. But see Douglas Laycock, "Nonpreferential" Aid to Religion: A False Claim about Original Intent, 27 Wm & Mary L Rev 875, 876-78 (1986)
286. See Michael W. McConnell, Coercion: The Lost Element of Establishment, 27 Wm & Mary L Rev 933, 935 (1986).
287. But see Douglas Laycock, "Noncoercive" Support for Religion: Another False Claim about the Establishment Clause, 26 Valp U L Rev 37, 41-48 (1992)
288. See Laycock, 26 Valp U L Rev at 39 (cited in note 223).
289. See McConnell, 103 Harv L Rev at 1499
290. But see Freeman, 71 Georgetown L J at 1523
291. See Laycock, 26 Valp U L Rev at 39 (cited in note 223)
292. See Rodney K. Smith, Converting the Religious Equality Amendment into a Statute with a Little "Conscience," 1996 BYU L Rev 645, 649
293. See Henry P. Monaghan, Our Perfect Constitution, 56 NYU L Rev 353, 356 (1981)
294. But see Larry Alexander, Response to Professor Kent Greenawalt's Lecture, 47 San Diego L Rev 1153, 1155 (2010)
295. See Michael Martin, Atheism and Religion, in Michael Martin, ed, The Cambridge Companion to Atheism 217
296. See Greenawalt, 1 Religion and the Constitution at 150
297. see Ronald Dworkin, Law's Empire 1-44 (Harvard 1986);
298. David A. Strauss, The Living Constitution 1-6 (Oxford 2010).
299. See Laycock, 11 Rutgers J L & Religion at 170
300. See Greenawalt, 1 Religion and the Constitution at 146-47 (cited in note 92)
301. Peñalver, 107 Yale L J at 802
302. See Quotes: Atheism, Atheist, online at http://atheisme.free.fr/Quotes/ Atheist.htm (visited Nov 25, 2012).
303. See Kaufman v McCaughtry, 419 F3d 678, 681-84 (7th Cir 2005)
304. See Greenawalt, 1 Religion and the Constitution at 149 (cited in note 92).
305. See Tebbe, 97 Va L Rev at 1150-51 (cited in note 210)
306. See Torcaso v Watkins, 367 US 488, 495 (1961)
307. See Laycock, 7 J Contemp Legal Issues at 330
308. United States v Seeger, 380 US 163, 172 (1965).
309. John Mansfield, Conscientious Objection-1964 Term, in Donald A. Giannella, ed, Religion and the Public Order 3, 6-7
310. Greenawalt, 1 Religion and the Constitution at 126-27
311. See Seeger, 380 US at 188
312. See Greenawalt, 1 Religion and the Constitution at 126-27 (cited in note 92).
313. But see Leiter, Why Tolerate Religion? at 26-53 (cited in note 14)
314. Timothy Macklem, Independence of Mind 119-54 (Oxford 2006)
315. See Greenawalt, 1 Religion and the Constitution at 139-46 (cited in note 92);
316. Peñalver, Note, 107 Yale L J at 814-16 (cited in note 190);
317. Freeman, 71 Georgetown L J at 1553 (cited in note 190).
318. Malnak v Yogi, 592 F2d 197, 208-11 (3d Cir 1979)
319. See also Note, Toward a Constitutional Definition of Religion, 91 Harv L Rev 1056, 1075 (1978)
320. See Malnak, 592 F2d at 208
321. Rawls, Political Liberalism at 13, 59-60
322. See Rawls, Political Liberalism at 13
323. See Malnak, 592 F2d at 208-11
324. Africa v Pennsylvania, 662 F2d 1025, 1032
325. United States v DeWitt, 95 F3d 1374, 1375
326. See Martha C. Nussbaum, Liberty of Conscience: In Defense of America's Tradition of Religious Equality 165, 170 (Basic Books 2008).
327. See Thomas v Review Board of Indiana Employment Security Division, 450 US 707, 715-16 (1981)
328. See McCreary County v ACLU, 545 US 844, 893-94 (2005)
329. See Thomas Colby, A Constitutional Hierarchy of Religions? Justice Scalia, the Ten Commandments, and the Future of the Establishment Clause, 100 Nw U L Rev 1097, 1103 (2006)
330. See Jesse H. Choper, Defining "Religion" in the First Amendment, 1982 U Ill L Rev 579, 597-601
331. But see Greenawalt, 1 Religion and the Constitution at 131-34
332. See Lawrence B. Solum, Public Legal Reason, 92 Va L Rev 1449, 1452 (2006)
333. See Mark Schroeder, Value Theory (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 2012), online at http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/value-theory (visited Nov 24, 2012)
334. See Fleischfresser v Directors of School District 200, 15 F3d 680, 688
335. Smith v Board of School Commissioners of Mobile County, 827 F2d 684, 693-94 (11th Cir 1987)
336. See also Douglas Laycock, Continuity and Change in the Threat to Religious Liberty: The Reformation Era and the Late Twentieth Century, 80 Minn L Rev 1047, 1081-83 (1996)
337. See Christopher L. Eisgruber and Lawrence G. Sager, Chips off Our Block? A Reply to Berg, Greenawalt, Lupu and Tuttle, 85 Tex L Rev 1273, 1284 (2007).
338. See also Tebbe, 97 Va L Rev at 1173
339. See Steven D. Smith, Barnette's Big Blunder, 78 Chi Kent L Rev 625, 637-38 (2003);
340. Abner S. Greene, Government of the Good, 53 Vand L Rev 1, 7-8 (2000).
341. See Smith, 78 Chi Kent L Rev at 638 (cited in note 273)
342. See Schwartzman, 97 Va L Rev at 323 (cited in note 12).
343. Rawls, Political Liberalism at 224
344. Perry, 47 San Diego L Rev at 1001
345. See Quong, Liberalism without Perfection at 204-12
346. See Rawls, Idea of Public Reason Revisited at 583-84