Inter and intra-specific diversity of parasites that cause lymphatic filariasis

Infection, Genetics and Evolution

Volumn 14, Issue 1, 2013, Pages 137-146

  McNulty, Samantha N ^a   Mitreva, Makedonka ^a   Weil, Gary J ^a   Fischer, Peter U ^a  

^a WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

Genetic variation; Genomics; Global Program to Eliminate Lymphatic Filariasis; Lymphatic filariasis

Indexed keywords

ALBENDAZOLE; BETA TUBULIN; DIETHYLCARBAMAZINE; IMMUNOGLOBULIN G4; IVERMECTIN; MONOCLONAL ANTIBODY; PARASITE ANTIGEN; PHENYLALANINE; TYROSINE;

AMINO ACID SUBSTITUTION; ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE; ANTIBODY DETECTION; ANTIGEN DETECTION; BRUGIA MALAYI; BRUGIA TIMORI; DISEASE CARRIER; DNA DETERMINATION; ENZYME LINKED IMMUNOSORBENT ASSAY; EXPRESSED SEQUENCE TAG; GENE SEQUENCE; GENETIC VARIABILITY; HOST RANGE; HUMAN; LYMPHATIC FILARIASIS; MICROBIAL MORPHOLOGY; NONHUMAN; NUCLEIC ACID ANALYSIS; PARASITOLOGY ELISA KIT; PATHOGENESIS; PERIODICITY; POLYMERASE CHAIN REACTION; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; SEQUENCE ANALYSIS; SPECIES DIVERSITY; WUCHERERIA BANCROFTI;

ANIMALS; ANTHELMINTICS; BIODIVERSITY; BRUGIA; ELEPHANTIASIS, FILARIAL; GENETIC VARIATION; GENOME, PROTOZOAN; NEGLECTED DISEASES; SELECTION, GENETIC; WUCHERERIA BANCROFTI;

BRUGIA MALAYI; BRUGIA TIMORI; WUCHERERIA BANCROFTI;

EID: 84872374687     PISSN: 15671348     EISSN: 15677257     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.meegid.2012.11.002     Document Type: Review

References (144)

1. Abdullah W.O., et al. Detection of circulating antigens and parasite specific antibodies in filariasis. The Southeast Asian Journal of Tropical Medicine and Public Health 1993, 24(Suppl. 2):31-36.
2. Ash L.R., Riley J.M. Development of subperiodic Brugia malayi in the jird, Meriones unguiculatus, with notes on infections in other rodents. The Journal of Parasitology 1970, 56:969-973.
3. Ash L.R., Schacher J.F. Early life cycle and larval morphogenesis of Wuchereria bancrofti in the jird, Meriones unguiculatus. The Journal of Parasitology 1971, 57:1043-1051.
4. Atmosoedjono S., et al. Anopheles balabacensis (Diptera: Culicidae), a vector of Wuchereria kalimantani (Nematoda: Onchocercidae) in east Kalimantan (Borneo), Indonesia. Medical and Veterinary Entomology 1993, 7:390-392.
5. Bain O., Chabaud A.G. Atlas of infective larvae of filariae. Tropical Medicine and Parasitology 1986, 37:301-340.
6. Baldo L., et al. Multilocus sequence typing system for the endosymbiont Wolbachia pipientis. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 2006, 72:7098-7110.
7. Bennuru S., et al. Brugia malayi excreted/secreted proteins at the host/parasite interface. stage- and gender-specific proteomic profiling. PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases 2009, 3:e410.
8. Bennuru S., et al. Stage-specific proteomic expression patterns of the human filarial parasite Brugia malayi and its endosymbiont Wolbachia. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 2011, 108:9649-9654.
9. Bisht R., et al. Isolation of Wuchereria bancrofti microfilariae from archived stained blood slides for use in genetic studies and amplification of parasite and endosymbiont genes. Acta Tropica 2006, 99:1-5.
10. Blaxter M.L. The filarial genome network. Parasitology Today 1995, 11:441-442.
11. Blaxter M.L., et al. Genes expressed in Brugia malayi infective third stage larvae. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology 1996, 77:77-93.
12. Bockarie M.J., et al. Role of vector control in the Global Program to Eliminate Lymphatic Filariasis. Annual Review of Entomology 2009, 54:469-487.
13. Brindley P.J., et al. Helminth genomics: the implications for human health. PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases 2009, 3:e538.
14. Bryan J.H., Southgate B.A. Factors affecting transmission of Wuchereria bancrofti by anopheline mosquitoes. 1. Uptake of microfilariae. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 1988, 82:128-137.
15. Bryan J.H., Southgate B.A. Factors affecting transmission of Wuchereria bancrofti by anopheline mosquitoes. 2. Damage to ingested microfilariae by mosquito foregut armatures and development of filarial larvae in mosquitoes. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 1988, 82:138-145.
16. Bryan J.H., et al. Factors affecting transmission of Wuchereria bancrofti by anopheline mosquitoes. 3. Uptake and damage to ingested microfilariae by Anopheles gambiae, An. arabiensis, An. merus and An. funestus in East Africa. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 1990, 84:265-268.
17. Buse E., Kuhlow F. Scanning microscopical observations on the foregut structures o mosquitoes and their role for the ingestion of microfilariae (author's transl). Tropenmedizin und Parasitologie 1979, 30:446-454.
18. Casiraghi M., et al. A phylogenetic analysis of filarial nematodes: comparison with the phylogeny of Wolbachia endosymbionts. Parasitology 2001, 122(Pt 1):93-103.
19. Casiraghi M., et al. Mapping the presence of Wolbachia pipientis on the phylogeny of filarial nematodes: evidence for symbiont loss during evolution. International Journal for Parasitology 2004, 34:191-203.
20. Choi Y.J., et al. A deep sequencing approach to comparatively analyze the transcriptome of lifecycle stages of the filarial worm, Brugia malayi. PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases 2011, 5:e1409.
21. Cross J.H., et al. Experimental transmission of Wuchereria bancrofti to monkeys. The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 1979, 28:56-66.
22. Cross J.H., et al. Further studies on the development of Wuchereria bancrofti in laboratory animals. The Southeast Asian Journal of Tropical Medicine and Public Health 1981, 12:114-122.
23. Darby A.C., et al. Analysis of gene expression from the Wolbachia genome of a filarial nematode supports both metabolic and defensive roles within the symbiosis 2012, Genome Research.
24. Dhamodharan R., et al. Genetic variability of diurnally sub-periodic Wuchereria bancrofti in Nicobarese tribe of Nicobar group of Islands, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, India. Parasitology Research 2008, 103:59-66.
25. Dhamodharan R., et al. Characterization of cofactor-independent phosphoglycerate mutase isoform-1 (Wb-iPGM) gene: a drug and diagnostic target from human lymphatic filarial parasite, Wuchereria bancrofti. Infection, Genetics and Evolution: Journal of Molecular Epidemiology and Evolutionary Genetics in Infectious Diseases 2012, 12:957-965.
26. Dissanaike A.S., Niles W.J. Attempts to transmit Wuchereria bancrofti to cats and to a Toque monkey. Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology 1965, 59:189-192.
27. Dissanaike A.S., et al. Recovery of a species of Brugia, probably B. ceylonensis, from the conjunctiva of a patient in Sri Lanka. Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology 2000, 94:83-86.
28. Dreyer G., et al. Pathogenesis of lymphatic disease in bancroftian filariasis: a clinical perspective. Parasitology Today 2000, 16:544-548.
29. Eberhard M.L., et al. Persistence of microfilaremia in bancroftian filariasis after diethylcarbamazine citrate therapy. Tropical Medicine and Parasitology 1988, 39:128-130.
30. Eberhard M.L., et al. Evidence of nonsusceptibility to diethylcarbamazine in Wuchereria bancrofti. The Journal of Infectious Diseases 1991, 163:1157-1160.
31. Eberhard M.L., et al. A survey of knowledge, attitudes, and perceptions (KAPs) of lymphatic filariasis, elephantiasis, and hydrocele among residents in an endemic area in Haiti. The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 1996, 54:299-303.
32. Ferri E., et al. New insights into the evolution of Wolbachia infections in filarial nematodes inferred from a large range of screened species. PLoS one 2011, 6:e20843.
33. Fischer P., et al. Development of a quantitative, competitive polymerase chain reaction-enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for the detection of Wuchereria bancrofti DNA. Parasitology Research 1999, 85:176-183.
34. Fischer P., et al. Detection of DNA of nocturnally periodic Brugia malayi in night and day blood samples by a polymerase chain reaction-ELISA-based method using an internal control DNA. The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 2000, 62:291-296.
35. Fischer P., et al. PCR-based detection and identification of the filarial parasite Brugia timori from Alor Island, Indonesia. Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology 2002, 96:809-821.
36. Fong M.Y., et al. Inferring the phylogenetic position of Brugia pahangi using 18S ribosomal RNA (18S rRNA) gene sequence. Tropical Biomedicine 2008, 25:87-92.
37. Fong M.Y., et al. Comparative analysis of ITS1 nucleotide sequence reveals distinct genetic difference between Brugia malayi from Northeast Borneo and Thailand. Parasitology 2012, 1-7.
38. Foster J., et al. The Wolbachia genome of Brugia malayi: endosymbiont evolution within a human pathogenic nematode. PLoS Biology 2005, 3:e121.
39. Ghedin E., et al. Draft genome of the filarial nematode parasite Brugia malayi. Science 2007, 317:1756-1760.
40. Godel, C., et al., 2012. The genome of the heartworm, Dirofilaria immitis, reveals drug and vaccine targets. FASEB Journal: Official Publication of the Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology.
41. Gregory W.F., et al. Differentially expressed, abundant trans-spliced cDNAs from larval Brugia malayi. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology 1997, 87:85-95.
42. Grove D.I. Wuchereria bancrofti, Brugia species and Filariasis, A History of Human Helminthology 1990, C.A.B. International, Wallingford, UK, pp. 579-640.
43. Guillemaud T., et al. Contrasting levels of variability between cytoplasmic genomes and incompatibility types in the mosquito Culex pipiens. Proceedings in Biological sciences/The Royal Society 1997, 264:245-251.
44. Gyapong J.O., et al. Treatment strategies underpinning the global programme to eliminate lymphatic filariasis. Expert Opinion on Pharmacotherapy 2005, 6:179-200.
45. Hawking F. The distribution of Bancroftian filariasis in Africa. Bulletin of the World Health Organization 1957, 16:581-592.
46. Hewitson J.P., et al. The secretome of the filarial parasite, Brugia malayi: proteomic profile of adult excretory-secretory products. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology 2008, 160:8-21.
47. Hii J., et al. The epidemiology and control of lymphatic filariasis on Lihir Island, New Ireland Province. Papua and New Guinea Medical Journal 2000, 43:188-195.
48. Hoti S.L., et al. Genetic heterogeneity of Wuchereria bancrofti populations at spatially hierarchical levels in Pondicherry and surrounding areas, South India. Infection, genetics and evolution: Journal of Molecular Epidemiology and Evolutionary Genetics in Infectious Diseases 2008, 8:644-652.
49. Hoti S.L., et al. An allele specific PCR assay for screening for drug resistance among Wuchereria bancrofti populations in India. The Indian Journal of Medical Research 2009, 130:193-199.
50. Huang H., et al. Molecular characterization and phylogenetic analysis of Dirofilaria immitis of China based on COI and 12S rDNA genes. Veterinary Parasitology 2009, 160:175-179.
51. Jayasekera N., et al. The susceptibility of Liberian Culex quinquefasciatus to Wuchereria bancrofti in Sri Lanka. Tropenmedizin und Parasitologie 1980, 31:507-511.
52. Jitpakdi A., et al. Variation in microfilariae and infective stages of two types of Wuchereria bancrofti from the Thai-Myanmar border. Journal of Helminthology 1999, 73:317-321.
53. Kalra N. Filariasis among aborigines of Andaman and Nicobar islands. Journal of Communicable Diseases 1974, 6:40-65.
54. Kaminsky R. Drug resistance in nematodes: a paper tiger or a real problem?. Current Opinion in Infectious Diseases 2003, 16:559-564.
55. Kaushal S., et al. Morphological variations in microfilaria of Wuchereria bancrofti in cytology smears: a morphometric study of 32 cases. Acta Cytologica 2012, 56:431-438.
56. Kohler P., Bachmann R. Intestinal tubulin as possible target for the chemotherapeutic action of mebendazole in parasitic nematodes. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology 1981, 4:325-336.
57. Krueger A. Guide to blackflies of the Simulium damnosum complex in eastern and Southern Africa. Medical and Veterinary Entomology 2006, 20:60-75.
58. Lalitha P., et al. Development of antigen detection ELISA for the diagnosis of brugian and bancroftian filariasis using antibodies to recombinant filarial antigens Bm-SXP-1 and Wb-SXP-1. Microbiology and Immunology 2002, 46:327-332.
59. Li B.W., et al. Brugia malayi: effects of radiation and culture on gene expression in infective larvae. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology 2006, 149:201-207.
60. Li B.W., et al. Transcription profiling reveals stage- and functiondependent expression patterns in the filarial nematode Brugia malayi. BMC Genomics 2012, 13:184.
61. Lubega G.W., Prichard R.K. Specific interaction of benzimidazole anthelmintics with tubulin: high-affinity binding and benzimidazole resistance in Haemonchus contortus. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology 1990, 38:221-232.
62. Mardis E.R. The impact of next-generation sequencing technology on genetics. Trends in Genetics 2008, 24:133-141.
63. Mardis E.R. A decade's perspective on DNA sequencing technology. Nature 2011, 470:198-203.
64. McCarthy J.S., et al. Evaluation of a polymerase chain reaction-based assay for diagnosis of Wuchereria bancrofti infection. The Journal of Infectious Diseases 1996, 173:1510-1514.
65. McNulty S.N., et al. Comparing the mitochondrial genomes of Wolbachia-dependent and independent filarial nematode species. BMC Genomics 2012, 13:145.
66. McReynolds L.A., et al. Cloning and comparison of repeated DNA sequences from the human filarial parasite Brugia malayi and the animal parasite Brugia pahangi. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 1986, 83:797-801.
67. Michael E., Bundy D.A. Global mapping of lymphatic filariasis. Parasitology Today 1997, 13:472-476.
68. Michalski M.L., et al. Identification and phylogenetic analysis of Dirofilaria ursi (Nematoda: Filarioidea) from Wisconsin black bears (Ursus americanus) and its Wolbachia endosymbiont. The Journal of Parasitology 2010, 96:412-419.
69. Michalski M.L., et al. The NIH-NIAID filariasis research reagent resource center. PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases 2011, 5:e1261.
70. More S.J., Copeman D.B. A highly specific and sensitive monoclonal antibody-based ELISA for the detection of circulating antigen in bancroftian filariasis. Tropical Medicine and Parasitology 1990, 41:403-406.
71. Moreno Y., Geary T.G. Stage- and gender-specific proteomic analysis of Brugia malayi excretory-secretory products. PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases 2008, 2:e326.
72. Moulia-Pelat J.P., et al. Periodicity of Wuchereria bancrofti var. pacifica filariasis in French Polynesia. Tropical Medicine and Parasitology 1993, 44:83-85.
73. Norris D.E. Genetic markers for study of the anopheline vectors of human malaria. International Journal for Parasitology 2002, 32:1607-1615.
74. Nuchprayoon S., et al. Detection and differentiation of filarial parasites by universal primers and polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis. The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 2005, 73:895-900.
75. Nuchprayoon S., et al. Random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) for differentiation between Thai and Myanmar strains of Wuchereria bancrofti. Filaria Journal 2007, 6:6.
76. Nutman T.B. Experimental infection of humans with filariae. Reviews of Infectious Diseases 1991, 13:1018-1022.
77. Orihel T.C., Beaver P.C. Zoonotic Brugia infections in North and South America. The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 1989, 40:638-647.
78. Orihel T.C., Eberhard M.L. Zoonotic filariasis. Clinical Microbiology Reviews 1998, 11:366-381.
79. Ottesen E.A. The global programme to eliminate lymphatic filariasis. Tropical Medicine and International Health 2000, 5:591-594.
80. Paily K.P., et al. A review of the complexity of biology of lymphatic filarial parasites. Journal of Parasitic Diseases 2009, 33:2-13.
81. Palmieri J.R., et al. Filarid parasites of South Kalimantan (Borneo) Indonesia. Wuchereria kalimantani sp. n. (Nematoda: Filarioidea) from the silvered leaf monkey, Presbytis cristatus Eschscholtz 1921. The Journal of Parasitology 1980, 66:645-651.
82. Pandey V., et al. Antigen detection assay with parasite specific monoclonal antibodies for diagnosis of lymphatic filariasis. Clinica Chimica Acta: International Journal of Clinical Chemistry 2011, 412:1867-1873.
83. Parra G., et al. CEGMA: a pipeline to accurately annotate core genes in eukaryotic genomes. Bioinformatics 2007, 23:1061-1067.
84. Partono F., Purnomo Clinical features of timorian filariasis among immigrants to an endemic area in West Flores, Indonesia. The Southeast Asian Journal of Tropical Medicine and Public Health 1978, 9:338-343.
85. Partono F., Purnomo Periodicity studies of Brugia malayi in Indonesia: recent findings and a modified classification of the parasite. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 1987, 81:657-662.
86. Partono F., et al. Malayan filariasis in Central Sulawesi (Celebes), Indonesia. The Southeast Asian Journal of Tropical Medicine and Public Health 1977, 8:452-458.
87. Partono F., et al. Epidemiological and clinical features of Brugia timori in a newly established village. Karakuak, West Flores, Indonesia. The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 1978, 27:910-915.
88. Patra K.P., et al. Identification of a molecular marker for genotyping human lymphatic filarial nematode parasite Wuchereria bancrofti. Experimental Parasitology 2007, 116:59-65.
89. Pichon G. Limitation and facilitation in the vectors and other aspects of the dynamics of filarial transmission: the need for vector control against Anopheles-transmitted filariasis. Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology 2002, 96(Suppl 2):S143-S152.
90. Pothikasikorn J., et al. Susceptibility of various mosquitoes of Thailand to nocturnal subperiodic Wuchereria bancrofti. Journal of Vector Ecology: Journal of the Society for Vector Ecology 2008, 33:313-320.
91. Prichard R.K. Anthelmintic resistance in nematodes: extent, recent understanding and future directions for control and research. International Journal for Parasitology 1990, 20:515-523.
92. Rahmah N., et al. Multicentre laboratory evaluation of Brugia Rapid dipstick test for detection of brugian filariasis. Tropical Medicine and International Health 2003, 8:895-900.
93. Ramachandran C.P. Biological aspects in the transmission of Brugia malayi by Aedes aegypti in the laboratory. Journal of Medical Entomology 1966, 3:239-252.
94. Ramachandran C.P., Zaini M.A. Studies on the transmission of sub-periodic Brugia malayi by Aedes (Finlaya) togoi in the laboratory. I. The intake and migration of microfilariae. The Medical Journal of Malaya 1967, 22:136-144.
95. Ramachandran C.P., Zaini M.A. Studies on the transmission of sub-periodic Brugia malayi by Aedes (Finlaya) togoi in the laboratory. 3. The survival of infected mosquitoes under laboratory conditions. The Medical Journal of Malaya 1968, 23:323-329.
96. Ramachandran C.P., Zaini M.A. Studies on the transmission of sub-periodic Brugia malayi by Aedes (Finlaya) togoi in the laboratory. II. The development of the parasite to the infective form; the relationship between concentration of microfilariae in the vertebrate host and infection in the mosquitoes. The Medical Journal of Malaya 1968, 22:198-203.
97. Ramachandran C.P., et al. Aedes aegypti as an experimental vector of Brugia malayi. Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology 1960, 54:371-375.
98. Ramachandran C.P., et al. Early stages in the development of Brugia malayi in different species. Annales De La Societe Belge De Medecine Tropicale 1961, 1920(41):285-289.
99. Ramesh A., et al. The complete mitochondrial genome sequence of the filarial nematode Wuchereria bancrofti from three geographic isolates provides evidence of complex demographic history. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology 2012, 183:32-41.
100. Rao R.U., et al. A real-time PCR-based assay for detection of Wuchereria bancrofti DNA in blood and mosquitoes. The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 2006, 74:826-832.
101. Rao R.U., et al. Detection of Brugia parasite DNA in human blood by real-time PCR. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 2006, 44:3887-3893.
102. Sakthidevi M., et al. Lymphatic filarial species differentiation using evolutionarily modified tandem repeats: generation of new genetic markers. Infection, Genetics and Evolution: Journal of Molecular Epidemiology and Evolutionary Genetics in Infectious Diseases 2010, 10:591-594.
103. Sasa M. Filariasis due to Wuchereria and Brugia, Human Filariasis: A Global Survey of Epidemiology and Control 1976, University of Tokyo Press, Japan.
104. Schwab A.E., et al. Detection of benzimidazole resistance-associated mutations in the filarial nematode Wuchereria bancrofti and evidence for selection by albendazole and ivermectin combination treatment. The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 2005, 73:234-238.
105. Schwab A.E., et al. Population genetics of concurrent selection with albendazole and ivermectin or diethylcarbamazine on the possible spread of albendazole resistance in Wuchereria bancrofti. Parasitology 2006, 133:589-601.
106. Schwab A.E., et al. An analysis of the population genetics of potential multi-drug resistance in Wuchereria bancrofti due to combination chemotherapy. Parasitology 2007, 134:1025-1040.
107. Schweinfurth U. Filarial diseases in Ceylon: a geographic and historical analysis. Ecology of Disease 1983, 2:309-319.
108. Scott A.L., Ghedin E. The genome of Brugia malayi - All worms are not created equal. Parasitology International 2009, 58:6-11.
109. Sharakhov I.V., et al. Inversions and gene order shuffling in Anopheles gambiae and A. funestus. Science 2002, 298:182-185.
110. Slatko B.E., et al. The Wolbachia endosymbiont as an anti-filarial nematode target. Symbiosis 2010, 51:55-65.
111. Snow L.C., et al. Transmission dynamics of lymphatic filariasis: vector-specific density dependence in the development of Wuchereria bancrofti infective larvae in mosquitoes. Medical and Veterinary Entomology 2006, 20:261-272.
112. Southgate B.A., Bryan J.H. Factors affecting transmission of Wuchereria bancrofti by anopheline mosquitoes. 4. Facilitation, limitation, proportionality and their epidemiological significance. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 1992, 86:523-530.
113. Supali T., et al. High prevalence of Brugia timori infection in the highland of Alor Island, Indonesia. The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 2002, 66:560-565.
114. Supali T., et al. Detection of filaria-specific IgG4 antibodies using Brugia Rapid test in individuals from an area highly endemic for Brugia timori. Acta Tropica 2004, 90:255-261.
115. Suswillo R.R., et al. Hybridization between Brugia patei, B. pahangi and sub-periodic B. malayi. Parasitology 1978, 77:153-160.
116. Tan L.H., et al. Zoonotic Brugia pahangi filariasis in a suburbia of Kuala Lumpur City, Malaysia. Parasitology International 2011, 60:111-113.
117. Taylor M.J., et al. Wolbachia bacterial endosymbionts of filarial nematodes. Advances in Parasitology 2005, 60:245-284.
118. Taylor M.J., et al. Lymphatic filariasis and onchocerciasis. Lancet 2010, 376:1175-1185.
119. Thangadurai R., et al. Phylogeography of human lymphatic filarial parasite, Wuchereria bancrofti in India. Acta Tropica 2006, 98:297-304.
120. Thanomsub B.W., et al. Differential diagnosis of human lymphatic filariasis using PCR-RFLP. Molecular and Cellular Probes 2000, 14:41-46.
121. Toumanoff C. Human filariasis and its transmission in Lower Guinea (estuary of the Rio Nunez). Bulletin de la Societe de pathologie exotique et de ses filiales 1958, 51:908-912.
122. Triteeraprapab S., et al. Lymphatic filariasis caused by Brugia malayi in an endemic area of Narathiwat Province, Southern of Thailand. Journal of the Medical Association of Thailand = Chotmaihet Thangphaet 2001, 84(1):S182-S188.
123. Trpis M., et al. Non-Mendelian inheritance of mosquito susceptibility to infection with Brugia malayi and Brugia pahangi. Science 1981, 211:1435-1437.
124. Ughasi J., et al. Mansonia africana and Mansonia uniformis are vectors in the transmission of Wuchereria bancrofti lymphatic filariasis in Ghana. Parasites & Vectors 2012, 5:89.
125. Underwood A.P., Bianco A.E. Identification of a molecular marker for the Y chromosome of Brugia malayi. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology 1999, 99:1-10.
126. Underwood A.P., et al. Two microsatellite loci from Brugia malayi show polymorphisms among isolates from Indonesia and Malaysia. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology 2000, 106:299-302.
127. Unnasch T.R. The filarial genome project. Parsitology Today 1994, 10:415-416.
128. Vythilingam I., et al. Anopheles donaldi incriminated as a vector of periodic Brugia malayi in Grik, Perak, Malaysia. The Southeast Asian Journal of Tropical Medicine and Public Health 1996, 27:637-641.
129. Weil G.J., Liftis F. Identification and partial characterization of a parasite antigen in sera from humans infected with Wuchereria bancrofti. Journal of Immunology 1987, 138:3035-3041.
130. Weil G.J., Ramzy R.M. Diagnostic tools for filariasis elimination programs. Trends in Parasitology 2007, 23:78-82.
131. Weil G.J., et al. A multicenter evaluation of a new antibody test kit for lymphatic filariasis employing recombinant Brugia malayi antigen Bm-14. Acta Tropica 2011, 120(Suppl 1):S19-S22.
132. Whitton C., et al. A genome sequence survey of the filarial nematode Brugia malayi: repeats, gene discovery, and comparative genomics. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology 2004, 137:215-227.
133. WHO Global Programme to Eliminate Lymphatic Filariasis. Weekly Epidemiological Record 2006, 81:221-232.
134. WHO Global programme to eliminate lymphatic filariasis. Weekly Epidemiological Record 2009, 84:437-444.
135. WHO, 2010. Progress report 2000-2009 and strategic plan 2010-2020 of the global programme to eliminate lymphatic filariasis: halfway towards eliminating lymphatic filariasis., Geneva, Switzerland.
136. WHO Global Programme to eliminate lymphatic filariasis: progress report on mass drug administration, 2010. Weekly Epidemiological Record 2011, 86:377-388.
137. Williams S.A., et al. A polymerase chain reaction assay for the detection of Wuchereria bancrofti in blood samples from French Polynesia. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 1996, 90:384-387.
138. Wolstenholme A.J., et al. Drug resistance in veterinary helminths. Trends in Parasitology 2004, 20:469-476.
139. Wondji C., et al. Species and populations of the Anopheles gambiae complex in Cameroon with special emphasis on chromosomal and molecular forms of Anopheles gambiae s.s. Journal of Medical Entomology 2005, 42:998-1005.
140. Wongkamchai S., et al. An antigen detection assay for diagnosing filariasis. Asian Pacific Journal of Allergy and Immunology/Launched by the Allergy and Immunology Society of Thailand 2003, 21:241-251.
141. Xie H., et al. Molecular phylogenetic studies on filarial parasites based on 5S ribosomal spacer sequences. Parasite 1994, 1:141-151.
142. Yatawara L., et al. Molecular characterization and phylogenetic analysis of Setaria digitata of Sri Lanka based on CO1 and 12S rDNA genes. Veterinary Parasitology 2007, 148:161-165.
143. Zhong M., et al. A polymerase chain reaction assay for detection of the parasite Wuchereria bancrofti in human blood samples. The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 1996, 54:357-363.
144. Zielke E., Kuhlow F. On the inheritance of susceptibility for infection with Wuchereria bancrofti in Culex pipiens fatigans. Tropenmedizin und Parasitologie 1977, 28:68-70.