Policing identity

Boston University Law Review

Volumn 92, Issue 5, 2012, Pages 1561-1611

  Logan, Wayne A ^a  

^a FLORIDA STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84871987316     PISSN: 00068047     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (304)

1. Zach Howard, Police to Begin iPhone Iris Scans amid Privacy Concerns, Reuters, July 20,2011, http://www.reuters.com/assets/print?aid= USTRE76J4A120110720
2. D. Parvaz, Mobile Biometrics to Hit U.S. Streets, Auazeera (Aug. 2, 1011), http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2011/07/20117258145965608.html
3. New Police Scanner Raises "Facial Profiling" Concerns (NPR radio broadcast Aug. 11, 2011)
4. Emily Steel & Julia Angwin, Device Raises Fear of Facial Profiling, Wall St. J., http://online.wsj.com/article/ SB10001424052702303678704576440253307985070.html (last updated Aug. 16,2011).
5. United States v. Mitchell, 652 F.3d 387 (3d Cir. 2011)
6. -132 S. Ct. 1741 (2012).
7. Wayne R. LaFave, Search and Seizure: A Treatise on the Fourth Amendment § 11.4, at 347 (4th ed. 2004).
8. Tolentino v. New York, 131 S. Ct. 1387 (2011).
9. Jeremy Bentham captured this anxiety in his plaintive query in 1843: "Who are you, with whom I have to deal?" 1 Jeremy Bentham, Principles of Penal Law, in Works OF Jeremy Bentham 557 (John Hill Burton et al. eds, Russell & Russell, Inc. 1962) (1843).
10. Pieter Spierenburg, The Body and the State: Early Modern Europe, in THE OXFORD History of the Prison 45,48,53 (Norval Morris & David J. Rothman eds., 1998).
11. Valentin Groebner, Describing the Person, Reading the Signs in Late Medieval and Renaissance Europe: Identity Papers, Vested Figures, and the Limits of Identification, 1400-1600, in Documenting Individual Identity: The Development of State Practices in the Modern World 15,25-26 (Jane Caplan & John Torpey eds., 2001).
12. Leon Radzinowicz, A History of English Criminal Law 46-47 (1956).
13. Simon A. Cole, Suspect Identities: A History of Fingerprinting and Criminal Identification 15 (2001).
14. John Pratt, Governing the Dangerous: Dangerousness, Law and Social Change 13,17 (1997).
15. Note, Selective Incapacitation: Reducing Crime Through Predictions of Recidivism, 96 Harv. L. Rev. 511, 511 n.l (1982).
16. David J. Rothman, Perfecting the Prison: United States, 1789-1865, in THE Oxford History of the Prison, supra note 7, at 100, 105-07 (discussing Jacksonian reformers' belief that "prison [should] transform the deviant into a law-abiding citizen, that is, rehabilitate the offender").
17. Pamela Sankar, State Power and Record-Keeping: The History of Individualized Surveillance in the United States, 1790-1935, at 70-72 (Jan. 1, 1992)
18. Michael Ignatieff, State, Civil Society and Total Institutions: A Critique of Recent Social Histories of Punishment, in SOCIAL Control and THE State: Historical and Comparative Essays 87 (Stanley Cohen & Andrew Scull eds., 1983).
19. Gustave de Beaumont & Alexis de Tocqueville, On the Penitentiary System in the United States and Its Application in France 101 (Francis Leiber trans., S. 111. Univ. Press 1964) (1833).
20. Lawrence M. Friedman, Crime and Punishment in American History 27-30, 66-68 (1993)
21. Eric H. Monkkonen, Police in Urban America, 1860-1920, at 34-35 (1981)
22. John C. Schneider, Detroit and the Problem of Order, 1830-1880, at 100-01,119(1980).
23. Peter Becker, The Standardized Gaze: The Standardization of the Search Warrant in Nineteenth-Century Germany, in DOCUMENTING INDIVIDUAL IDENTITY: THE DEVELOPMENT of State Practices in the Modern World, at 139, 155.
24. George Pavlich, The Subjects of Criminal Identification, 11 PUNISHMENT & Soc'Y 171 (2009).
25. Howard O. Sprogle, The Philadelphia Police, Past and Present 273, 653 (1971).
26. Roger Lane, Policing the City: Boston 1822-1885, at 66 (1967).
27. Previously, in 1819, Germany and France experimented with predecessor technologies: in Germany, portraits, and in France, use of the "physionotrace," a device that permitted a person's bodily shadow to be projected onto paper in silhouette form when the person was placed between the device and a light.
28. James F. Richardson, The New York Police: Colonial Times to 1901, at 122 (1970).
29. Andrd Normandeau, Pioneers in Criminology: Arnould Bonneville de Marsangy (1802-1894), 60 J. Crim. L. Criminology & Police Sci. 28,30 (1969).
30. Prison Ass'n of N.Y., 24th Annual Report of the Executive Committee of the Prison 546,553 (1869), available at http://books.google.com/books?id= KyUSAAAAYAA j=frontcover=gbs-ge-summary-r=0#v=onepage{=false.
31. Raymond B. Fosdick, European Police Systems 354-55 (1915).
32. The registration bureau had 200 employees who occupied 130 rooms.
33. Mathieu Deflem, Surveillance and Criminal Statistics: Historical Foundations of Governmentality, 17 STUD. L. POL. & Soc'Y 149, 162 (1997).
34. Robert M. W. Kempner, The German National Registration System as Means of Police Control of Population, 36 J. Crim. L. & Criminology 362, 366, 378-81 (1946).
35. The Reich Criminal Police kept separate card indices of "professional criminals," gypsies, and wanted criminals, allowing for their ready identification and detention.
36. Leon Radzinowicz & Roger Hood, Incapacitating the Habitual Criminal: The English Experience, 78 Mich. L. Rev. 1305,1308 (1980).
37. This vulnerability was embodied in the behavior of one Lacenaire, described as a "professional criminal," who "adopted false names, multiplied forgeries and disguises, and preyed actively on society." Havelock Ellis, The Criminal 22-23 (2d ed. 1895).
38. Edmund R. Spearman, Known to the Police, 36 Nineteenth Century 356, 357 (1894), reprinted in Crime and Punishment in England: A Sourcebook 256-57 (Andrew Barrett & Christopher Harrison eds., 1999).
39. Leon Radzinowicz & Roger Hood, The Emergence of Penal Policy in Victorian and Edwardian Britain 261 (1990).
40. Alphonse Bertillon, Instructions for Taking Descriptive for the Identification of Criminals and Others by the Means of Anthropometric Indications 72 (Gallus Muller trans., AMS Press 1977) (1889).
41. Martha Merrill Umphrey, "The Sun Has Been Too Quick for Them": Criminal Portraiture and the Police in the Late Nineteenth Century, 16 Stud. L. Pol. & Soc'y 139, 149 (1997).
42. Not all were convinced of the superiority of the new regime, however, including New York City Police Lieutenant William Sheridan, "known and feared the world around among professional criminals as 'The Man with the Camera Eye.'" Duels with the Underworld, Lexington Herald, Oct. 23, 1910, at 4.
43. Ronald R. Thomas, Detective Fiction and the Rise of Forensic Science 223 (1999)
44. Charles Colbert, A Measure of Perfection: Phrenology and the Fine Arts in America (1997)
45. David G. Horn, The Criminal Body: Lombroso and the Anatomy of Deviance (2003).
46. Nicole Hahn Rafter, Criminal Anthropology: Its Reception in the United States and the Nature of Its Appeal, in Criminals AND Their Scientists: The History of Criminology in International Perspective 159-81 (Peter Becker & Richard F. Wetzell eds., 2006).
47. The competing positions clashed in 1907 when Bertillon refuted Lombroso's conclusion that the hands of a Parisian hostler made clear that he was a "born criminal," when the man's hands actually were misshapen as a result of his manual labor. Bertillon and Lombroso at Odds over Palmistry, Balt. Am., Dec. 1, 1907, at 12.
48. Editorial, Prison Reform V: The Incorrigible Criminal, FORT WAYNE NEWS, Dec. 30, 1896, at 2.
49. Defense of the Bertillon System, N.Y. Times, Jan. 20, 1896, at 3
50. Wilbur R. Miller, Cops and Bobbies: Police Authority in New York and London, 1830-1870, at 147 (1973)
51. Identification Wanted: Development of the American Criminal Identification System, 1893-1943, at 31-33
52. Samuel Walker, A Critical History of Police Reform: The Emergence of Professionalism 40,47-48 (1977).
53. Simon Cole notes that Albany, New York detective John Malloy may have used prints even earlier in the United States.
54. Philadelphia Dons Convention Dress, N.Y. Times, June 19,1936, at 8; Photos of 10,000 Crooks Gathered for Convention, N.Y. TIMES, June 17, 1936, at 2.
55. Federal Crime Registry Results in 236 Arrests, L.A. TIMES, Sept. 12, 1932, at A12.
56. Don Whitehead, The FBI Story: A Report to the People 139 (1956).
57. Erin Murphy, Databases, Doctrine and Constitutional Criminal Procedure, 37 Fordham Urb. L.J. 803, 806-08 (2010).
58. At present, the IAFIS system constitutes the largest criminal identification database in the world. Integrated Automated Fingerprint Identification System, Fed. Bureau Investigation, http://www.fbi.gov/about-us/ cjis/fingerprints-biometrics/iafis/iafis (last visited Oct. 10,2012).
59. National Instant Criminal Background Check System, the Convicted Sexual Offender Registry, and the Convicted Persons on Supervised Release database.
60. Stephen Rushin, The Judicial Response to Mass Police Surveillance, 2 U. III. J.L. Tech. & Pol'y 281,284-85 (2011). "Biometrics" refers either to biological or physiological characteristics usable for automatic recognition of individuals on the basis of such characteristics.
61. Nat'l Sci. & Tech. Council, Privacy & Biometrics: Building a Conceptual Foundation 4 (2006), available at http://www.biometrics.gov/ Documents/privacy.pdf.
62. Biometric Systems: Technology, Design and Performance Evaluation (James Wayman et al. eds., 2005)
63. John D. Woodward, Jr. et al., Biometrics: A Look at Facial Recognition 3 (2003).
64. John Daugman, Iris Recognition, 89 Am. Scientist 326 (2001).
65. Nat'l Sci. & Tech. Council, Biometrics Overview 3 (2006), available at http://www.biometrics.gov/Documents/BioOverview.pdf.
66. Kathy Harman-Stokes, Ubiquitous Biometrics, Future of Privacy Forum (Feb. 10, 2010), http://www.futureofprivacy.org/2010/02/10/ubiquitous-biometrics.
67. John D. Woodward, Jr. et al., Army Biometric Applications: Identifying and Addressing Sociocultural Concerns 17 (2001).
68. Retinography, Med. Discoveries, http://www.discoveriesinmedicine.com/Ra- Thy/Retinography.html (last visited Aug. 29,2012).
69. Ravi Das, Retinal Recognition: Biometric Technology in Practice, KEESING J. Documents & Identity, no. 22,2007, at 11.
70. Lucas D. Introna & Helen Nissenbaum, Ctr. for Catastrophe Preparedness & Response, Facial Recognition Technology: A Survey of Policy and Implementation Issues 11 (2009), available at http://www.nyu.edu/ccpr/pubs/ Niss-04.08. 09.pdf.100A/.atl6.
71. Ryan Gallagher, FBI to Give Facial Recognition Software to Law-Enforcement Agencies, Slate (Aug. 23,2012), http://www.slate.com/blogs/ future-tense/2012/08/23/ universal-face-workstation-fbi-to-give-facial- recognition-software-to-law-enforcement-.html.
72. P. Jonathan Phillips et al., An Introduction to the Good, the Bad, & the Ugly Face Recognition Challenge Problem (2010), available at http://www.nist.gov/itl/iad/ig/upload/05771424.pdf
73. DNA and the Criminal Justice System: The Technology of Justice (David Lazer ed., 2004).
74. Nat'l Research Council of the Nat'l Acads., Biometric Recognition: Challenge and Opportunities 94 (Joseph Pato & Lynette Millett eds., 2010), available at http://www.nap.edu/catalog.php?record-id=12720#toc.
75. CODIS-NDIS Statistics, Fed. Bureau Investigation, http://www.fbi.gov/ about-us/lab/codis/ndis-statistics (last visited Sept. 5,2011).
76. Erin Murphy, The New Forensics: Criminal Justice, False Certainty, and the Second Generation of Scientific Evidence, 95 Cal. L. Rev. 721, 739-40 (2007)
77. Natalie Ram, Fortuity and Forensic Familial Identification, 63 Stan. L.Rev. 751 (2011).
78. John Watkins, "Mugging" Innocent Persons Under Arrest: Lights and Shadows of a System Whose Abuse Has Shaken New York's Police from Top to Bottom, OREGONIAN (Portland), July 25, 1909, at 4.
79. Keeping Track of the Criminal by His Finger Prints: The Wonderful Art, Long Used in China, Rapidly Being Adopted by the Police of This Country, with the New York Force Leading, N.Y. Times, July 30, 1911 (Magazine), at 12
80. People v. Hevem, 215 N.Y.S. 412, 418 (N.Y. Mag. Ct. 1926)
81. Joseph M. Deuel, What There Is in Finger-Prints, in Finger-Prints 3, 10 (1917)
82. Finger-Printing, Evening World Daily Mag. (New York), Dec. 19, 1916, at 16
83. A.M. Kidd, The Right to Take Fingerprints, Measurements and Photographs, 8 Cal. L. Rev. 25,32 (1919).
84. Shaffer v. United States, 24 App. D.C. 417 (1904)
85. Mabry v. Kettering, 122 S.W. 115 (Ark. 1909)
86. Downs v. Swann, 73 A. 653 (Md. 1909)).
87. -107 N.Y.S. 1011 (N.Y. 1907).
88. State v. Baldwin, 297 S.W. 10, 18-19 (Mo. 1927)
89. Downs v. Swann, 73 A. 653, 655 (Md. 1909)
90. Brokaw's Caretaker Held on Two Charges, N.Y. Times, Mar. 13, 1905, at 8
91. Itzkovitch v. Whitaker, 42 So. 228, 229 (La. 1906)
92. Annotation, Right to Take Finger Prints and Photographs of Accused Before Trial, or to Retain Same in Police Record After Acquittal or Discharge of Accused, 83 A.L.R. 127 (1933)
93. Comment, Excluding from Evidence Fingerprints Taken After an Unlawful Arrest, 69 YALE L.J. 432, 438 n.30 (1960)
94. United States v. Kelly, 55 F.2d 67, 70 (2d Cir. 1932)
95. Note, Methods of Scientific Crime Detection as Infringements of Personal Rights, 44 Harv. L. REV. 842, 843 n.9 (1931)
96. Tracey Maclin, Is Obtaining an Arrestee's DNA a Valid Special Needs Search Under the Fourth Amendment? What Should (and Will) the Supreme Court Do?, 33 J.L. Med. & Ethics 102,102 (2005).
97. United States v. Stewart, 532 F.3d 32, 36-37 (1st Cir. 2008)
98. United States v. Kriesel, 508 F.3d 941, 950 (9th Cir. 2007)
99. Banks v. United States, 490 F.3d 1178, 1193 (10th Cir. 2007)
100. Bina Ghanaat, Comment, Technology and Privacy: The Need for an Appropriate Mode of Analysis in the Debate over the Federal DNA Act, 42 U.C. Davis L. Rev. 1315,1332-36 (2009) (surveying caselaw).
101. -652 F.3d 387 (3d Cir. 2011) (en banc), cert, denied, 132 S. Ct. 1741 (2012).
102. -42 U.S.C. § 14135a(a)(l)(A) (2006)
103. 28 C.F.R. § 28.12 (2012)
104. United States v. Kelly, 55 F.2d 67,68 (2d Cir. 1932).
105. DNA profiling is simply a more precise method of ascertaining identity and is thus akin to fingerprinting, which has long been accepted as part of routine booking procedures.
106. To the extent that DNA profiling assists the Government in accurate criminal investigations and prosecutions (both of which are dependent on accurately identifying the suspect), it is in the Government's interest to have this information as soon as possible.
107. Haskell v. Brown, 677 F. Supp. 2d 1187, 1199 (N.D. Cal. 2009).
108. Anderson v. Commonwealth, 650 S.E.2d 702, 706 (Va. 2007)
109. United States v. Kincade, 379 F.3d 813, 874 (9th Cir. 2004)
110. United States v. Laub Baking Co., 283 F. Supp. 217,222-25 (N.D. Ohio 1968).
111. Mitchell, 652 F.3d at 410 n.20
112. Napolitano v. United States, 340 F.2d 313 (1st Cir. 1965)
113. Smith v. United States, 324 F.2d 879 (D.C. Cir. 1963)
114. United States v. Iacullo, 226 F.2d 788 (7th Cir. 1955).
115. Haskell v. Brown, 677 F. Supp. 2d 1187, 1199 (N.D. Cal. 2009)
116. 669 F.3d 1049 (9th Cir. 2012)
117. -686 F.3d 1121 (9th Cir. 2012).
118. Wayne A. Logan, Policing in an Intolerant Society, 35 Crim. L. Bull. 334, 334-36(1999).
119. Debra Livingston, Police Discretion and the Quality of Life in Public Places: Courts, Communities, and the New Policing, 97 COLUM. L. Rev. 551, 580 (1997).
120. Josh Bowers, Legal Guilt, Normative Innocence, and the Equitable Decision Not to Prosecute, 110 Colum. L. Rev. 1655, 1694-95 (2010)
121. Wayne R. LaFave, Arrest: The Decision to Take a Suspect into Custody 437-66
122. Peter Moskos, Cop in the Hood: My Year Policing Baltimore's Eastern District 114-20 (2008).
123. Arkansas v. Sullivan, 532 U.S. 769, 771 (2001)
124. Whren v. United States, 517 U.S. 806, 812 (1996)
125. -532 U.S. 318(2001).
126. Virginia v. Moore, 553 U.S. 164, 176-78 (2008)
127. Ohio v. Robinette, 519 U.S. 33, 39-40 (1996)
128. Haskell v. Harris, 669 F.3d 1049, 1065 (9th Cir. 2012).
129. Wayne A. Logan, Police Mistakes of Law, 61 Emory L.J. 69, 109 (2011)
130. Herring v. United States, 555 U.S. 135, 139 (2009)
131. United States v. Mitchell, 652 F.3d 387, 423 n.6 (3d Cir. 2011)
132. -151 Cong. Rec. 28,855 (2005)
133. Haskell, 669 F.3d at 1065.
134. D.H. Kaye, The Constitutionality of DNA Sampling on Arrest, 10 CORNELL J.L. & PUB. Pol'y455, 458 nn.11-12 (2001)
135. Ariz. Stat. Ann. § 13-610(O)(3) (2011)
136. Kan. Stat. Ann. § 21-2511(e)(1)-(2) (Supp. 2010)
137. S.C. Code Ann. § 23-3-620(A)(2) (2011).
138. For information on the scope of state laws allowing for collection of DNA samples upon arrest more generally see State [sic] That Have Passed Arrestee DNA Database, DNAResource.com, (2011), available at http://www.dnaresource.com/ documents/ArresteeDNALaws-2011 .pdf.
139. Jennifer Dobner, DNA Test Sought on All Booked at New Jail, Kennard Says It Could Cut Crime Rate in Half, DESERET NEWS (Aug. 4, 1999), http://www.deseretnews.com/article/710914/DNA-test-sought-on-all-booked-at-new- jail.html?pg=all
140. Tami Abdollah, Arrested in O.C.? DNA Sample Could Buy Release, L.A. Times, Sept. 17,2009, at Al
141. Nick Pinto, As Occupy Arrestees Arraigned, Iris Scans Affect Bail, Village Voice Blogs (Mar. 19,2012), http://blogs.villagevoice.com/runninscared/ 2012/03/as-occupy-arres.php.
142. Richard Ford, Police Want DNA from Speeding Drivers and Litter Louts on Database, TIMES (London), Aug. 2, 2007, at 2.
143. Katie Sepich Enhanced DNA Collection Act of 2010, H.R. 4614,111th Cong. (2010)
144. Elizabeth E. Joh, Reclaiming "Abandoned" DNA: The Fourth Amendment and Genetic Privacy, 100 Nw. U. L. Rev. 857, 882 (2006).
145. -150 Cong. Rec. 22,956 (2004)
146. DANIEL J. Solove, Nothing to Hide: The False Tradeoff Between Privacy and Security (2011).
147. Why Pass the DNA Law?, DNA Saves, http://www.dnasaves.org/dna-law.php (last visited Oct. 10,2012).
148. Alexandra Natapoff, Misdemeanors, 85 S. Cal. L. Rev. (forthcoming 2012)
149. Erica Goode, Many in U.S. Are Arrested by Age 23, Study Finds, N.Y. TIMES, Dec. 19, 2011, at A16.
150. Kevin Flynn, Fighting Crime with Ingenuity, 007 Style: Gee-Whiz Police Gadgets Get a Trial Run in New York, N.Y. Times, Mar. 7, 2000, at Bl
151. Brendan McCarthy, As NOPD Files Away Mountain of Data from Traffic Stops, Critics Warn Overuse May Break Law, Nola.COM (July 10, 2012), http://www.nola.com/crime/in dex.ssf/2012/07/as-nopd-files-away-mountain-of.html
152. David Lazer & Michelle N. Mayer, DNA and the Criminal Justice System: Consensus and Debate, in DNA and the Criminal Justice System, at 359, 370.
153. Nat'l Research Council of the Nat'l Acads., at 4-5, 96-97
154. Nat'l Research Council of the Nat'l Acads., Strengthening Forensic Science in the United States: A Path Forward 132 (2009), available at http://books.nap.edu/catalog. php?record-id=12589.
155. William Thompson, Tarnish on the "Gold Standard": Understanding Recent Problems in Forensic DNA Testing, Champion, Jan./Feb. 2006, at 10
156. William K. Rashbaum & Joseph Goldstein, DNA Match Tying Protest to 2004 Killing Is Doubted, N.Y. TIMES, July 11, 2012, at A19
157. Peter Jamison, SFPD Crime Lab's DNA Evidence Could Be Tainted by Concealed Mistakes, S.F. Wkly. (Dec. 15,2010), http://www.sfweekly.com/2010-12- 15/news/sfpd-s-troubled-crime-lab-more-evi dence-of-screwups-and-coverups/ (discussing sample switches in several cases).
158. Greg Hampikian et al., The Genetics of Innocence: Analysis of 194 DNA Exonerations, 12 Ann. Rev. Genomics & Hum. Genetics 97, 107 (2011)
159. David H. Kaye, The Double Helix and the Law of Evidence 163 (2010).
160. Cal. Dep't of Justice, Crime in California 49 (2010), available at http://ag.ca.gov/cjsc/publications/candd/cdlO/preface .pdf.
161. Surrell Brady, Arrests Without Prosecution and the Fourth Amendment, 59 Md. L. Rev. 1, 40-41 (2000).
162. Andrew Golub et al., Race/Ethnicity Disparity in Misdemeanor Marijuana Arrests in New York City, 6 Criminology & Pub. Pol'y 131, 147 (2007)
163. Robert Sykora, Our New Permanent Punishment Machine, COUNCIL ON CRIME AND Just., http://www.crimeandjustice.org/councilinfo.cfm?pID=65
164. Steven Zeidman, Policing the Police: The Role of the Courts and the Prosecution, 32 FORDHAM Urb. L.J. 315, 318 (2005).
165. Julie Samuels et al., Collecting DNA from Arrestees: Implementation Lessons, Nat'l Inst. Just. J., June 2012, at 18, 21, available at https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffilesl/nij/ 238484.pdf
166. Jeremiah Goulka et al., Rand Corp., Ctr. on Quality Policing, Toward a Comparison of DNA Profiling and Databases in the United States and England 17-20 (2010), available at http://www.rand.org/content/dam/ rand/pubs/technical- reports/2010/RAND-TR918.pdf
167. Sheldon Krimsky & Tania Simoncelli, Genetic Justice: DNA Databanks, Criminal Investigations, and Civil Liberties 318-19 (2011)
168. Troy Duster, Selective Arrests, an Ever-Expanding DNA Forensic Database, and the Specter of an Early Twenty-First Century Equivalent of Phrenology, in DNA AND THE Criminal Justice System, at 315, 319-22, 329
169. JUSTICE Policy Inst., The Vortex: The Concentrated Racial Impact of Drug Imprisonment and the Characteristics of Punitive Counties 6-9 (2007), available at http://www.justicepolicy .org/images/upload/07-12-REP-Vortex-AC-DP.pdf
170. Simon Cole, Fingerprint Identification and the Criminal Justice System: Historical Lessons for the DNA Debate, in DNA and the Criminal Justice System, at 63,82.
171. Aleksandar Tomic & Jahn K. Hakes, Case Dismissed: Police Discretion and Racial Differences in Dismissals of Felony Charges, 10 Am. L. & Econ. Rev. 110,138-39 (2008)
172. Jim Dwyer, Whites Smoke Pot but Blacks Are Arrested, N.Y. TIMES, Dec. 22, 2009, at A24.
173. United States v. Mitchell, 652 F.3d 387,406 (3d Cir. 2011).
174. Language in United States v. Dionisio, 410 U.S. 1, 14 (1973)
175. Cupp v. Murphy, 412 U.S. 291, 295 (1973)
176. Dionisio, 410 U.S. at 10
177. Davis v. Mississippi, 394 U.S. 721 (1969).
178. William J. Stuntz, Privacy's Problem and the Law of Criminal Procedure, 93 Mich. L. Rev. 1016,1016-17 (1995).
179. Jennifer Lynch, Immigration Policy Ctr., From Fingerprints to DNA: Biometric Data Collection in U.S. Immigrant Communities and Beyond 3-5 (2012), available at http://www.immigrationpolicy.Org//sites/default/files/docs/ Lynch%20%20Biometrics%2005 2112.pdf
180. Nita A. Farahany, Searching Secrets, 160 U. Pa. L. Rev. 1239, 1281-82 (2012).
181. United States v. Wagers, 452 F.3d 534, 541 (6th Cir. 2006)
182. United States v. Sandoval, 29 F.3d 537, 542 (10th Cir. 1994)
183. Tania Simoncelli & Sheldon Krimsky, Am. Constitution Soc'y, A New Era of DNA Collections: At What Cost to Civil Liberties? 12-13 (2007), available at http://www.acslaw.org/sites/default/files/SimoncelliKrimsky-DNA-Collection- Civil-Liberties.pdf.
184. William Thompson et al., How the Probability of a False Positive Affects the Value of DNA Evidence, 48 J. Forensic Sci. 1, 2 (2003)
185. Andrew G. Ferguson, Crime Mapping and the Fourth Amendment: Redrawing "High-Crime Areas," 63 Hastings L.J. 179 (2011)
186. Arnold H. Loewy, The Fourth Amendment As a Device for Protecting the Innocent, 81 Mich. L. Rev. 1229 (1983).
187. L. Rush Atkinson, The Bilateral Fourth Amendment and the Duties of Law-Abiding Persons, 99 Geo. L.J. 1517, 1521-26 (2011).
188. Monrad G. Paulsen, The Exclusionary Rule and Misconduct by Police, in Police Power and Individual Freedom 87, 97 (Claude R. Sowle ed., 1962)
189. -132 S. Ct. 945 (2012).
190. -468 U.S. 1032 (1984).
191. United States v. Olivares-Rangel, 458 F.3d 1104, 1111 (10th Cir. 2006)
192. United States v. Guevara-Martinez, 262 F.3d 751, 753 (8th Cir. 2001)
193. Olivares-Rangel, 458 F.3d at 1112-13.
194. Hayes v. Florida, 470 U.S. 811, 815 (1985)
195. Davis v. Mississippi, 394 U.S. 721, 727 (1969).
196. Olivares-Rangel, 458 F.3d at 1119
197. 556F.3d 1181 (1 lthCir. 2009).
198. -547 U.S. 586, 591 (2006)
199. United States v. Calandra, 414 U.S. 338,348 (1974).
200. Farias-Gonzalez, 556 F.3d at 1189.
201. Hiibel v. Sixth Judicial Dist. Court, 542 U.S. 177,185-86 (2004).
202. United States v. Dionisio, 410 U.S. 1, 15 (1973).
203. Farias-Gonzalez, 556 F.3d at 1188.
204. -926 N.E.2d 1212 (N.Y.)
205. -131 S. Ct. 595 (2010)
206. -131 S.Ct. 1387(2011).
207. United States v. Bowley, 435 F.3d 426,430-31 (3d Cir. 2006)
208. United States v. Del Toro Gudino, 376 F.3d 997, 1001 (9th Cir. 2004)
209. Tolentino, 926 N.E.2d at 1214.
210. Tolentino, 926 N.E.2d at 1216.
211. United States v. Olivares-Rangel, 458 F.3d 1104, 1111 (10th Cir. 2006)
212. United States v. Juan-Torres, 441 F. Supp. 2d 1108,1122 (D.N.M. 2006)
213. Tolentino, 926 N.E.2d at 1218
214. United States v. Del Toro Gudino, 376 F.3d 997, 1001 (9th Cir. 2004)
215. Hiibel v. Sixth Judicial Dist. Court, 542 U.S. 177, 191 (2004)
216. -42 Pa. Cons. Stat. Ann. § 9795.2 (West 2007)
217. Fla. Stat. Ann. § 856.022 (West Supp. 2012)
218. -720 III. Comp. Stat. Ann. 5 / 11-9.4 (West Supp. 2011)
219. Mass. Gen. Laws ch. 209A, §§ 3,7 (2010).
220. K. Babe Howell, Gang Databases: Labeled for Life, Champion, July/Aug. 2011, at 28.
221. Ray Rivera & Al Baker, Police Cite Help from Stop-and-Frisk Data in 170 Cases, N.Y. Times, July 17,2010, at A15.
222. Rocco Parascandola, Write On, Say Cops: Brass Says Stop & Frisk Records Aren 't Dead, Just Use Paper, Not Computers, N.Y. Daily News, July 22,2010, at 2.
223. United States v. Del Toro Gudino, 376 F.3d 997,1001 (9th Cir. 2004).
224. Hudson v. Michigan, 547 U.S. 586, 596 (2006)
225. Elkins v. United States, 364 U.S. 206, 217 (1960)
226. Brown v. Texas, 443 U.S. 47,52 (1979)
227. David J.R. Frakt, Fruitless Poisonous Trees in a Parallel Universe: Hudson v. Michigan, Knock-and-Announce, and (he Exclusionary Rule, 34 Fla. St. U. L. Rev. 659, 691-96 (2007)
228. United States v. Oscar-Torres, 597 F.3d 224, 229-30 (4th Cir. 2007)
229. United States v. Perez-Perez, 337 F.3d 990, 994 (8th Cir. 2003).
230. United States v. Arias, 678 F.2d 1202 (4th Cir. 1982)
231. United States v. Navarro-Diaz, 420 F.3d 581, 588 (6th Cir. 2005)
232. United States v. Del Toro Gudino, 376 F.3d 997, 1001 (9th Cir. 2004)
233. People v. Tolentino, 926 N.E.2d 1212,1218 (N.Y. 2011)
234. Davis v. Mississippi, 394 U.S. 721, 724 (1969)
235. Bynum v. United States, 262 F.2d 465, 467 (D.C. Cir. 1958).
236. Brendlin v. California, 551 U.S. 249, 260 (2007)
237. Brigham City v. Stuart, 547 U.S. 398,404 (2006)
238. Whren v. United States, 517 U.S. 806, 813-14 (1996).
239. Joshua Dressler & Alan Michaels, Understanding Criminal Procedure §§ 15.01, 18.04-.05 (5th ed. 2010)
240. Brooks Holland, The Road 'Round Edmond: Steering Through Primary Purposes and Crime Control Agendas, 111 Penn St. L. Rev. 293, 299-327 (2006)
241. United States v. Olivares-Rangel, 458 F.3d 1104, 1116 (10th Cir. 2006).
242. Court in City of Indianapolis v. Edmond, 531 U.S. 32, 47 n.2 (2000).
243. Morgan Cloud, Judges, "Testifying," and the Constitution, 69 S. Cal. L. Rev. 1341 (1996)
244. Christopher Slobogin, Testifying: Police Perjury and What to Do About It, 67 U. COLO. L. Rev. 1037 (1996).
245. Olivares-Rangel, 458 F.3d at 1112-13
246. La. Rev. Stat. Ann. § 15:602 (West 2005)
247. Transcript of Oral Argument at 20, Tolentino v. New York, 131 S. Ct. 595 (2010) (No. 09-11556)
248. Sossamon v. State, 816 S.W.2d 340, 348 (Tex. Crim. App. 1991).
249. United States v. Crews, 445 U.S. 463,477 (1980)
250. United States v. Dionisio, 410 U.S. 1, 14 (1973)
251. Transcript of Oral Argument at 33, Tolentino, 131 S. Ct. 595 (No. 09-11556)
252. Simon A. Cole, Is the "Junk" DNA Designation Bunk?, 102 Nw. U. L. Rev. Colloquy 54 (2007), http7/www.law.northwestern.edu/lawreview/Colloquy/ 2007/23/LRColl2007n23Cole.pdf.
253. Luke M. Milligan, Analogy Breakers: A Reality Check on Emerging Technologies, 80 Miss. L.J. 1319,1322-23 (2011).
254. Hiibel v. Sixth Judicial Dist. Court, 542 U.S. 177, 188-89 (2003).
255. Berkemer v. McCarty, 468 U.S. 420, 439 (1984)
256. Terry v. Ohio, 392 U.S. 1, 34 (1968)
257. Wayne A. Logan, An Exception Swallows a Rule: Police Authority to Search Incident to Arrest, 19 Yale L. & Pol'y Rev. 381, 391-97 (2001)
258. -42 U.S.C. § 14135a(a)(4)(A) (2006)
259. U.S. Marshalls Serv., Prisoner Operations 2 (2009), available at http://www.usmarshals.gov /foia/Directives-Policy/prisoner-ops/dna.pdf
260. -42 U.S.C. § 14135a(a)(5)(A).
261. Sampson v. California, 547 U.S. 843, 848-49 (2006)
262. United States v. Knights, 534 U.S. 112, 117-18 (2001)
263. United States v. Kincade, 379 F.3d 813, 837 n.32 (9th Cir. 2004)
264. S. & Marper v. United Kingdom, 48 Eur. H.R. Rep. 50, 1195-1202 (2009)
265. Liz Campbell, "Non-Conviction" DNA Databases and Criminal Justice: A Comparative Analysis, 2011 J. COMMONWEALTH CRIM. L. 55.
266. -42 U.S.C. § 14132(d) (2006)
267. -151 Cong. Rec. 28,855 (2005)
268. -151 Cong. Rec. 28,857 (2005)
269. Kincade, 379 F.3d at 874
270. Skinner v. Ry. Labor Execs.' Ass'n, 489 U.S. 602, 618 (1989)
271. Mario W. v. Kaipio, 281 P.3d 476,483 (Ariz. 2012)
272. State ex rel. Reed v. Harris, 153 S.W.2d 834, 837 (Mo. 1941)
273. City of Indianapolis v. Edmond, 531 U.S. 32, 44 (2000)
274. Russell D. Covey, Pervasive Surveillance and the Future of the Fourth Amendment, 80 MlSS. L.J. 1289, 1316-18 (2011)
275. Orin S. Kerr, Use Restrictions and the Future of Surveillance Law, in CONSTITUTION 3.0: FREEDOM AND TECHNOLOGICAL CHANGE 37, 39 (Jeffrey Rosen & Benjamin Wittes eds., 2011)
276. Harold J. Krent, Of Diaries and Data Banks: Use Restrictions Under the Fourth Amendment, 74 TEX. L. Rev. 49,60 (1995)
277. United States v. Navarro-Diaz, 420 F.3d 581, 587 (6th Cir. 2005).
278. Transcript of Oral Argument at 16, Tolentino v. New York, 131 S. Ct. 595 (2010) (No. 09-11556).
279. Ric Simmons, Searching for Terrorists: Why Public Safety Is Not a Special Need, 59 Duke L.J. 843,915-19(2010).
280. Stephen A. Saltzburg & Daniel J. Capra, American Criminal Procedure: Cases and Commentary 382-85 (8th ed. 2007)
281. James J. Tomkovicz, Constitutional Exclusion: The Rules, Rights, and Remedies that Strike the Balance Between Freedom and Order 42-51 (2011).
282. Davis v. Mississippi, 394 U.S. 721, 725 n.4 (1969)
283. Silverthorne Lumber Co. v. United States, 251 U.S. 385,392 (1920).
284. Gerstein v. Pugh, 420 U.S. 103, 119 (1975)
285. Frisbie v. Collins, 342 U.S. 519, 522 (1952)
286. Ker v. Illinois, 119 U.S. 436,444 (1886).
287. Compare United States v. Gross, 662 F.3d 393, 404-05 (6th Cir. 2011)
288. United States v. Johnson, 383 F.3d 538, 546 (7th Cir. 2004)
289. State v. Moralez, 242 P.3d 223,241-53 (Kan. Ct. App. 2011)
290. INS v. Lopez-Mendoza, 468 U.S. 1032, 1046 (1984)
291. United States v. Carter, 573 F.3d 418, 423 (7th Cir. 2009)
292. People v. Tolentino, 926 N.E.2d 1212, 1213-14 (N.Y. 2010).
293. Florida v. Royer, 460 U.S. 491, 497 (1983)
294. David A. Harris, The Stories, the Statistics, and the Law: Why "Driving While Black" Matters, 84 MINN. L. Rev. 265, 310-11 (1999)
295. David E. Steinberg, The Drive Toward Warrantless Auto Searches: Suggestions from a Back Seat Driver, 80 B.U. L. REV. 545, 564-67 (2000)
296. Brown v. Illinois, 422 U.S. 590, 603-04 (1975)
297. Mincey v. Arizona, 437 U.S. 385, 390 (1978)
298. Judges Lay and Bowman in United States v. Jefferson, 906 F.2d 346, 351-53 (8th Cir. 1990).
299. Murray v. United States, 487 U.S. 533, 537 (1988)
300. People v. Tolentino, 926 N.E.2d 1212,1215 (N.Y. 2010).
301. United States v. Olivares-Rangel, 458 F.3d 1104, 1117 (10th Cir. 2006)
302. Olivares-Rangel, 458 F.3d at 1120
303. Kelly A. Gates, Our Biometric Future: Facial Recognition Technology and the Culture of Surveillance 89-90 (2011)
304. Thomas Haigh, "A Veritable Bucket of Facts": Origins of the Data Base Management System, SIGMOD REC, June 2006, at 33,35.