Indigenous peoples and epistemic injustice: Science, ethics, and human rights

Washington Law Review

Volumn 87, Issue 4, 2012, Pages 1133-1201

  Tsosie, Rebecca ^a  

^a ARIZONA STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

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EID: 84871906954     PISSN: 00430617     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (472)

1. See Rebecca Tsosie, Cultural Challenges to Biotechnology: Native American Genetic Resources and the Concept of Cultural Harm, 35 J. L. Med. & Ethics 396 (2007) (discussing biomedical research).
2. See Rebecca Tsosie, Climate Change, Sustainability and Globalization: Charting the Future of Indigenous Environmental Self-Determination, 4 Envtl. & Energy L. & Pol'y J. 188 (2009) (discussing energy development and adaptation planning).
3. U.N. Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, G.A. Res. 61/295, ¶ 3, U.N. Doc. A/RES/61/295 (Oct. 2, 2007) [hereinafter Declaration].
4. Montana v. United States, 450 U.S. 544, 564 (1981)
5. United States v. Wheeler, 435 U.S. 313, 322-23 (1978).
6. United States v. Wheeler, 435 U.S. 313, 322-23 (1978).
7. United States v. Wheeler, 435 U.S. 313, 322-23 (1978).
8. Miranda Fricker, Epistemic Injustice: Power and the Ethics of Knowing 7 (2007).
9. See, e.g., Editorial, Who Owns the Past?, Sci. Am., (Mar. 27, 2012), available at http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=who-owns-the-past (arguing that repatriation rules are too favorable to American Indian communities and jeopardize the interests of science).
10. Professor Daniel Wildcat describes this separation as a "schizophrenic" approach to metaphysics, comparing the holistic frameworks of Native epistemologies. See Vine Deloria, Jr. & Daniel R. Wildcat, Power and Place: Indian Education in America 47-55 (2001).
11. See generally Thomas A. Mappes & David DeGrazia, Biomedical Ethics 1-2 (6th ed. 2005) (discussing ethics as a philosophical discipline devoted to the study of morality).
12. See generally Thomas A. Mappes & David DeGrazia, Biomedical Ethics 1-2 (6th ed. 2005) (discussing ethics as a philosophical discipline devoted to the study of morality).
13. See generally Karl Popper, The Logic of Scientic Discovery (2d ed. 1968) (characterizing effective scientific method as disproving hypotheses through inductive processes: each time a prediction based upon a theory is correct, the theory survives).
14. See Frederick Suppe, The Search for Philosophic Understanding of Scientific Theories, in The Structure of Scientific Theories 3-8 (Frederick Suppe ed., 2d ed. 1977).
15. William Wishart, That Certain and Unchangeable Difference Betwixt Moral Good and Evil: A Sermon Preach'd Before the Societies for the Reformation of Manners, at Salters-Hall; on Monday the 3d of July, 1732, 33-34 (1732).
16. See Letter from Thomas Jefferson to Nehemia Dodge, Ephraim Robbins & Stephen S. Nelson, Comm. Members, Danbury Baptist Ass'n (Jan. 1, 1802), in Jefferson: Writings 510 (Merril D. Peterson ed., (1984) ("[T]he whole American people [have] declared that their legislature should 'make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof,' thus building a wall of separation between Church and State. ").
17. Of course, religion continues to have a significant "informal" impact on public policy, as the recent controversy over women's reproductive rights demonstrates. See Rachael N. Pine & Silvia A. Law, Envisioning a Future for Reproductive Liberty: Strategies for Making the Rights Real, 27 Harv. C.R.-C.L. L. Rev. 407, 432 (1992).
18. See generally Donald L. Fixico, The American Indian Mind in a Linear World (2003).
19. See Sarah B. Gordon, Note, Indian Religious Freedom and Governmental Development of Public Lands, 94 Yale L.J. 1447, 1449 (1985).
20. See generally Duane Champagne, American Indian Societies: Strategies and Conditions of Political and Cultural Survival (1985).
21. See Carole E. Goldberg et al., American Indian Law: Native Nations and the Federal System 383 (6th ed. 2010).
22. See generally Duane Champagne, American Indian Societies: Strategies and Conditions of Political and Cultural Survival (1985).
23. Rebecca Tsosie, Tribal Environmental Policy in an Era of Self-Determination: The Role of Ethics, Economics, and Traditional Ecological Knowledge, 21 Vt. L. Rev. 225, 282-85 (1996).
24. See generally Gregory Cajete, Native Science: Natural Laws of Interdependence (1999).
25. Rebecca Tsosie, Tribal Environmental Policy in an Era of Self-Determination: The Role of Ethics, Economics, and Traditional Ecological Knowledge, 21 Vt. L. Rev. 225, 282-85 (1996).
26. James A. Lichatowich, Salmon Without Rivers: A History of the Pacific Salmon Crisis 37 (2001).
27. Vine Deloria, Jr., God is Red: A Native View of Religion 90 (2d ed. 1994).
28. Rebecca Tsosie, Tribal Environmental Policy in an Era of Self-Determination: The Role of Ethics, Economics, and Traditional Ecological Knowledge, 21 Vt. L. Rev. 225, 282-85 (1996).
29. Rebecca Tsosie, Tribal Environmental Policy in an Era of Self-Determination: The Role of Ethics, Economics, and Traditional Ecological Knowledge, 21 Vt. L. Rev. 225, 282-85 (1996).
30. Rebecca Tsosie, Tribal Environmental Policy in an Era of Self-Determination: The Role of Ethics, Economics, and Traditional Ecological Knowledge, 21 Vt. L. Rev. 225, 282-85 (1996).
31. Rebecca Tsosie, Tribal Environmental Policy in an Era of Self-Determination: The Role of Ethics, Economics, and Traditional Ecological Knowledge, 21 Vt. L. Rev. 225, 282-85 (1996).
32. Rebecca Tsosie, Tribal Environmental Policy in an Era of Self-Determination: The Role of Ethics, Economics, and Traditional Ecological Knowledge, 21 Vt. L. Rev. 225, 282-85 (1996).
33. Professor Daniel Wildcat describes this separation as a "schizophrenic" approach to metaphysics, comparing the holistic frameworks of Native epistemologies. See Vine Deloria, Jr. & Daniel R. Wildcat, Power and Place: Indian Education in America 47-55 (2001).
34. Professor Daniel Wildcat describes this separation as a "schizophrenic" approach to metaphysics, comparing the holistic frameworks of Native epistemologies. See Vine Deloria, Jr. & Daniel R. Wildcat, Power and Place: Indian Education in America 47-55 (2001).
35. Professor Daniel Wildcat describes this separation as a "schizophrenic" approach to metaphysics, comparing the holistic frameworks of Native epistemologies. See Vine Deloria, Jr. & Daniel R. Wildcat, Power and Place: Indian Education in America 47-55 (2001).
36. Leroy Little Bear, Foreword to Gregory Cajete, Native Science: Natural Laws of Interdependence, at ix (1999).
37. Leroy Little Bear, Foreword to Gregory Cajete, Native Science: Natural Laws of Interdependence, at ix (1999).
38. Leroy Little Bear, Foreword to Gregory Cajete, Native Science: Natural Laws of Interdependence, at ix (1999).
39. Leroy Little Bear, Foreword to Gregory Cajete, Native Science: Natural Laws of Interdependence, at ix (1999).
40. Leroy Little Bear, Foreword to Gregory Cajete, Native Science: Natural Laws of Interdependence, at ix (1999).
41. Leroy Little Bear, Foreword to Gregory Cajete, Native Science: Natural Laws of Interdependence, at ix (1999).
42. For example, there is an active international effort underway to gather indigenous environmental knowledge for use in adaptation planning. The thought is that traditional knowledge can be "tested" under Western scientific standards to determine whether it is "accurate, " and if it is, it can be incorporated into adaptation plans to deal with the problem of climate change. Panels on Indigenous and Local Knowledge for Adaption, at the Climate Adaptation Futures: Second International Climate Change Adaptation Conference (May 29, 2012). See also Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Report (forthcoming 2013) (this report will contain a chapter on this subject).
43. I will intentionally differentiate "information" from "knowledge. " There are many ways to access information. However, systems of knowledge are necessary to assemble and categorize that information in ways that are useful to human societies.
44. James V. Fenelon & Mary Louise Defender-Wilson, Voyage of Domination, "Purchase" as Conquest, Sakakawea for Savagery: Distorted Icons from Misrepresentations of the Lewis and Clark Expedition, 19 Wicazo Sa Rev. 85, 87 (2004).
45. James V. Fenelon & Mary Louise Defender-Wilson, Voyage of Domination, "Purchase" as Conquest, Sakakawea for Savagery: Distorted Icons from Misrepresentations of the Lewis and Clark Expedition, 19 Wicazo Sa Rev. 85, 87 (2004).
46. James V. Fenelon & Mary Louise Defender-Wilson, Voyage of Domination, "Purchase" as Conquest, Sakakawea for Savagery: Distorted Icons from Misrepresentations of the Lewis and Clark Expedition, 19 Wicazo Sa Rev. 85, 87 (2004).
47. Rebecca Tsosie, Tribal Environmental Policy in an Era of Self-Determination: The Role of Ethics, Economics, and Traditional Ecological Knowledge, 21 Vt. L. Rev. 225, 282-85 (1996).
48. U.S. Const. art I, § 8, cl. 8.
49. Rebecca Tsosie, Tribal Environmental Policy in an Era of Self-Determination: The Role of Ethics, Economics, and Traditional Ecological Knowledge, 21 Vt. L. Rev. 225, 282-85 (1996).
50. Confidential Message from Thomas Jefferson to Congress Recommending a Western Exploring Expedition (Jan. 18, 1803), in Race and Races: Cases and Resources for a Multiracial America 184, 184 (Juan F. Perea et al. eds., 2000)
51. Rebecca Tsosie, Tribal Environmental Policy in an Era of Self-Determination: The Role of Ethics, Economics, and Traditional Ecological Knowledge, 21 Vt. L. Rev. 225, 282-85 (1996).
52. Rebecca Tsosie, Tribal Environmental Policy in an Era of Self-Determination: The Role of Ethics, Economics, and Traditional Ecological Knowledge, 21 Vt. L. Rev. 225, 282-85 (1996).
53. Rebecca Tsosie, Tribal Environmental Policy in an Era of Self-Determination: The Role of Ethics, Economics, and Traditional Ecological Knowledge, 21 Vt. L. Rev. 225, 282-85 (1996).
54. See Hope M. Babcock, A Civic-Republican Vision of "Domestic Dependent Nations" in the Twenty-First Century: Tribal Sovereignty Re-Envisioned, Reinvigorated, and Re-Empowered, 2005 Utah L. Rev. 443, 536-38 (2005)
55. Robert J. Miller, The Doctrine of Discovery in American Indian Law, 42 Idaho L. Rev. 1, 79 (2005) (noting Jefferson granted 3000 land patents in his two years as governor).
56. Confidential Message from Thomas Jefferson to Congress Recommending a Western Exploring Expedition (Jan. 18, 1803), in Race and Races: Cases and Resources for a Multiracial America 184, 184 (Juan F. Perea et al. eds., 2000)
57. Confidential Message from Thomas Jefferson to Congress Recommending a Western Exploring Expedition (Jan. 18, 1803), in Race and Races: Cases and Resources for a Multiracial America 184, 184 (Juan F. Perea et al. eds., 2000)
58. Rebecca Tsosie, Tribal Environmental Policy in an Era of Self-Determination: The Role of Ethics, Economics, and Traditional Ecological Knowledge, 21 Vt. L. Rev. 225, 282-85 (1996).
59. Rebecca Tsosie, Tribal Environmental Policy in an Era of Self-Determination: The Role of Ethics, Economics, and Traditional Ecological Knowledge, 21 Vt. L. Rev. 225, 282-85 (1996).
60. David P. Currie, The Constitution in Congress: Jefferson and the West, 1801-1809, 39 Wm. & Mary L. Rev. 1441, 1462 (1998).
61. Colin Elman, Extending Offensive Realism: The Louisiana Purchase and America's Rise to Regional Hegemony, 98 Am. Pol. Sci. Rev. 563, 568
62. Lewis and Clark, Inside the Corps, Circa 1803, PBS, http://www.pbs.org/lewisandclark/inside/idx_cir.html (last visited July 12, 2012) [hereinafter Lewis and Clark, Inside the Corps].
63. Michael Mooney, Foreword to Stephen Dow Beckham, The Literature of the Lewis and Clark Expedition: A Bibliography and Essays 7 (2003).
64. Lewis and Clark, Inside the Corps, Circa 1803, PBS, http://www.pbs.org/lewisandclark/inside/idx_cir.html (last visited July 12, 2012) [hereinafter Lewis and Clark, Inside the Corps].
65. President Thomas Jefferson's Instructions to Captain Meriwether Lewis (June 20, 1803), available at http://www.library.csi.cuny.edu/dept/history/lavender/jefflett.html (last visited Aug. 10, 2012).
66. President Thomas Jefferson's Instructions to Captain Meriwether Lewis (June 20, 1803), available at http://www.library.csi.cuny.edu/dept/history/lavender/jefflett.html (last visited Aug. 10, 2012).
67. President Thomas Jefferson's Instructions to Captain Meriwether Lewis (June 20, 1803), available at http://www.library.csi.cuny.edu/dept/history/lavender/jefflett.html (last visited Aug. 10, 2012).
68. Robert J. Miller, Native America, Discovered And Conquered: Thomas Jefferson, Lewis & Clark, And Manifest Destiny 71-73 (2006).
69. Robert J. Miller, Native America, Discovered And Conquered: Thomas Jefferson, Lewis & Clark, And Manifest Destiny 71-73 (2006).
70. The Doctrine of Discovery was applied to dispossess Native peoples of their lands in the U.S., Canada, New Zealand, and Australia, albeit with some key distinctions. Aboriginal people in Australia, for example, were not recognized as having any right to occupy their lands until the historic Mabo decision in 1992. Mabo v. Queensland (No. 2) (1992), 175 CLR 1 (Austl.).
71. See Robert A. Williams, Jr., The American Indian in Western Legal Thought: The Discourses of Conquest (1990).
72. 21 U.S. (8 Wheat.) 543 (1823).
73. 21 U.S. (8 Wheat.) 543 (1823).
74. See, e.g., William Nichols, Lewis and Clark Probe the Heart of Darkness, 49 Am. Scholar 94, 94, 96 (1979-1980).
75. See Indian Citizenship Act, ch. 233, 43 Stat. 253 (1924).
76. See generally Keith H. Basso, Wisdom Sits in Places: Landscape and Language Among the Western Apache (1996)
77. Rodney Frey, Stories That Make the World: Oral Literature of the Indian Peoples of the Inland Northwest (1995).
78. The theme of "remapping" was the subject of the recent Federal Bar Association's annual Indian law conference. Mapping Indian Law and Policy, Panel at the Federal Bar Association Thirty-Seventh Annual Indian Law Conference (Apr. 19-20, 2012).
79. Cherokee Nation v. Georgia, 30 U.S. (5 Pet.) 1, 17 (1831).
80. See Worcester v. Georgia, 31 U.S. (6 Pet.) 515 (1832)
81. Cherokee Nation, 30 U.S. (5 Pet.) 1.
82. Worcester, 31 U.S. at 557.
83. Worcester, 31 U.S. at 557.
84. See Eric Kades, The Dark Side of Efficiency: Johnson v. M'Intosh and the Expropriation of American Indian Lands, 148 U. Pa. L. Rev. 1065 (2000).
85. The Native Americans, PBS, http://www.pbs.org/lewisandclark/native (last visited July 12, 2012).
86. The Native Americans, PBS, http://www.pbs.org/lewisandclark/native (last visited July 12, 2012).
87. The Native Americans, PBS, http://www.pbs.org/lewisandclark/native (last visited July 12, 2012).
88. The Native Americans, PBS, http://www.pbs.org/lewisandclark/native (last visited July 12, 2012).
89. See, e.g., William Nichols, Lewis and Clark Probe the Heart of Darkness, 49 Am. Scholar 94, 94, 96 (1979-1980).
90. Rebecca Tsosie, Tribal Environmental Policy in an Era of Self-Determination: The Role of Ethics, Economics, and Traditional Ecological Knowledge, 21 Vt. L. Rev. 225, 282-85 (1996).
91. Rebecca Tsosie, Tribal Environmental Policy in an Era of Self-Determination: The Role of Ethics, Economics, and Traditional Ecological Knowledge, 21 Vt. L. Rev. 225, 282-85 (1996).
92. Rebecca Tsosie, Tribal Environmental Policy in an Era of Self-Determination: The Role of Ethics, Economics, and Traditional Ecological Knowledge, 21 Vt. L. Rev. 225, 282-85 (1996).
93. Rebecca Tsosie, Tribal Environmental Policy in an Era of Self-Determination: The Role of Ethics, Economics, and Traditional Ecological Knowledge, 21 Vt. L. Rev. 225, 282-85 (1996).
94. Donald Fixico, Federal and State Policies and American Indians, in A Companion to American History 379, 382-83 (Philip J. Deloria & Neal Salisbury eds., 2004).
95. See generally Debra Harry, Indigenous Peoples and Gene Disputes, 84 Chi.-Kent L. Rev. 147 (2009) (discussing legal battle of the Havasupai Tribe for improper usage of medical data and Oxford University's failure to gain informed consent of the Nuu-cha-nulth Tribe to utilize blood samples for research).
96. Elazar Barkan, The Retreat of Scientific Racism: Changing Concepts of Race in Britain and the United States Between the World Wars 2-3 (1993).
97. See, e.g., Loving v. Virginia, 388 U.S. 1 (1967) (holding that state statutes banning miscegenation between the races were unconstitutional, but observing that states justified such statutes on a perceived need to prevent the "corruption" of the white race through interbreeding with "inferior" races).
98. 163 U.S. 537 (1986) (holding that the Fourteenth Amendment ensures "legal" equality between the races, not social equality, and upholding a Louisiana law that required separate railway carriages for "white and colored races").
99. See Robert L. Hayman, Jr. & Nancy Levitt, The Constitutional Ghetto, 1993 Wis. L. Rev. 627, 635-66 (1993).
100. See, e.g., Miller v. Oregon, 208 U.S. 412 (1908) (upholding an Oregon law that imposed a maximum hours limit upon women employees and finding that the physical and emotional differences of men and women, which were medically substantiated, justified the restriction upon women in their individual capacity to contract for employment).
101. Rebecca Tsosie, Tribal Environmental Policy in an Era of Self-Determination: The Role of Ethics, Economics, and Traditional Ecological Knowledge, 21 Vt. L. Rev. 225, 282-85 (1996).
102. Kristin Shrader-Frechette, Lecture at Arizona State University (Jan. 20, 2012).
103. Sharon Beder, Global Spin: The Corporate Assault on Environmentalism (1998)
104. Kristin Shrader-Frechette, Taking Action, Saving Lives: Our Duties to Protect Environmental and Public Health (2007).
105. Kristin Shrader-Frechette, Taking Action, Saving Lives: Our Duties to Protect Environmental and Public Health (2007).
106. Jessica Wang, American Science in an Age of Anxiety: Scientists, Anticommunism, and the Cold War 125 (1999).
107. Wittmer v. Peters, 87 F.3d 916, 920 (7th Cir. 1996) ("If academic research is required to validate any departure from strict racial neutrality, social experimentation in the area of race will be impossible despite its urgency. ").
108. Studies of the impact of nuclear power plants are a good case in point.
109. See Jack F. Trope & Walter R. Echo-Hawk, The Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act: Background and Legislative History, 24 Ariz. St. L.J. 35, 40 (1992).
110. Walter Echo-Hawk, In the Courts of the Conqueror: The 10 Worst Indian Law Cases Ever Decided 258 (2010) (documenting the number of culturally unidentifiable human remains in the custody of federal agencies and museums as 118,833 as of 2008).
111. Walter Echo-Hawk, In the Courts of the Conqueror: The 10 Worst Indian Law Cases Ever Decided 258 (2010) (documenting the number of culturally unidentifiable human remains in the custody of federal agencies and museums as 118,833 as of 2008).
112. Walter Echo-Hawk, In the Courts of the Conqueror: The 10 Worst Indian Law Cases Ever Decided 258 (2010) (documenting the number of culturally unidentifiable human remains in the custody of federal agencies and museums as 118,833 as of 2008).
113. Walter Echo-Hawk, In the Courts of the Conqueror: The 10 Worst Indian Law Cases Ever Decided 258 (2010) (documenting the number of culturally unidentifiable human remains in the custody of federal agencies and museums as 118,833 as of 2008).
114. Walter Echo-Hawk, In the Courts of the Conqueror: The 10 Worst Indian Law Cases Ever Decided 258 (2010) (documenting the number of culturally unidentifiable human remains in the custody of federal agencies and museums as 118,833 as of 2008).
115. See, e.g., Editorial, Who Owns the Past?, Sci. Am., (Mar. 27, 2012), available at http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=who-owns-the-past (arguing that repatriation rules are too favorable to American Indian communities and jeopardize the interests of science).
116. Reginald Horsman, Scientific Racism and the American Indian in the Mid-Nineteenth Century, 27 Am. Q. 152, 159 (1975). 110. See, e.g., Michael J. Sandel, Justice: What's the Right Thing to Do? (2009).
117. Michael J. Sandel, Justice: What's the Right Thing to Do? (2009).
118. Rebecca Tsosie, Tribal Environmental Policy in an Era of Self-Determination: The Role of Ethics, Economics, and Traditional Ecological Knowledge, 21 Vt. L. Rev. 225, 282-85 (1996).
119. History, Navajo Nation, http://www.navajo-nsn.gov/history.htm (last visited July 12, 2012).
120. See, e.g., Susan E. Dawson, Navajo Uranium Workers and the Effects of Occupational Illnesses: A Case Study, 51 Hum. Org. 389 (1992).
121. Rebecca Tsosie, Tribal Environmental Policy in an Era of Self-Determination: The Role of Ethics, Economics, and Traditional Ecological Knowledge, 21 Vt. L. Rev. 225, 282-85 (1996).
122. Alice Kaswan, Environmental Justice: Bridging The Gap Between Environmental Laws And "Justice, " 47 Am. U. L. Rev. 221, 225-27 (1997).
123. Alice Kaswan, Environmental Justice: Bridging The Gap Between Environmental Laws And "Justice, " 47 Am. U. L. Rev. 221, 225-27 (1997).
124. See Kathryn Mutz et al., Justice and Natural Resources (2002).
125. The federal policy uses "environmental justice, " and not "environmental racism, " indicating that this is the preferred term in policymaking. See Environmental Justice, EPA, http://www.epa.gov/environmentaljustice (last visited July 12, 2012).
126. The federal policy uses "environmental justice, " and not "environmental racism, " indicating that this is the preferred term in policymaking. See Environmental Justice, EPA, http://www.epa.gov/environmentaljustice (last visited July 12, 2012).
127. John Rawls, A Theory of Justice 4 (1971).
128. Miranda Fricker, Epistemic Injustice: Power and the Ethics of Knowing 7 (2007).
129. Rebecca Tsosie, Tribal Environmental Policy in an Era of Self-Determination: The Role of Ethics, Economics, and Traditional Ecological Knowledge, 21 Vt. L. Rev. 225, 282-85 (1996).
130. Rebecca Tsosie, Tribal Environmental Policy in an Era of Self-Determination: The Role of Ethics, Economics, and Traditional Ecological Knowledge, 21 Vt. L. Rev. 225, 282-85 (1996).
131. Rebecca Tsosie, Tribal Environmental Policy in an Era of Self-Determination: The Role of Ethics, Economics, and Traditional Ecological Knowledge, 21 Vt. L. Rev. 225, 282-85 (1996).
132. Rebecca Tsosie, Tribal Environmental Policy in an Era of Self-Determination: The Role of Ethics, Economics, and Traditional Ecological Knowledge, 21 Vt. L. Rev. 225, 282-85 (1996).
133. Rebecca Tsosie, Tribal Environmental Policy in an Era of Self-Determination: The Role of Ethics, Economics, and Traditional Ecological Knowledge, 21 Vt. L. Rev. 225, 282-85 (1996).
134. Miranda Fricker, Epistemic Injustice: Power and the Ethics of Knowing 7 (2007).
135. Miranda Fricker, Epistemic Injustice: Power and the Ethics of Knowing 7 (2007).
136. Miranda Fricker, Epistemic Injustice: Power and the Ethics of Knowing 7 (2007).
137. Miranda Fricker, Epistemic Injustice: Power and the Ethics of Knowing 7 (2007).
138. Miranda Fricker, Epistemic Injustice: Power and the Ethics of Knowing 7 (2007).
139. Miranda Fricker, Epistemic Injustice: Power and the Ethics of Knowing 7 (2007).
140. Miranda Fricker, Epistemic Injustice: Power and the Ethics of Knowing 7 (2007).
141. Miranda Fricker, Epistemic Injustice: Power and the Ethics of Knowing 7 (2007).
142. Miranda Fricker, Epistemic Injustice: Power and the Ethics of Knowing 7 (2007).
143. Miranda Fricker, Epistemic Injustice: Power and the Ethics of Knowing 7 (2007).
144. Miranda Fricker, Epistemic Injustice: Power and the Ethics of Knowing 7 (2007).
145. Miranda Fricker, Epistemic Injustice: Power and the Ethics of Knowing 7 (2007).
146. See, e.g., Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharm., Inc., 509 U.S. 579 (1993).
147. 25 C.F.R. § 83 (2012).
148. See, e.g., Pueblo of Sandia v. United States, 50 F.3d 856 (10th Cir. 1995) (describing process for identifying traditional cultural properties under the National Historic Preservation Act).
149. See, e.g., Pueblo of Sandia v. United States, 50 F.3d 856 (10th Cir. 1995) (describing process for identifying traditional cultural properties under the National Historic Preservation Act).
150. See, e.g., Tee-Hit-Ton Indians v. United States, 348 U.S. 272, 277-78 (1955) (dismissing the testimony of a traditional leader about the property claim of the Tee-Hit-Ton Indians).
151. Rebecca Tsosie, Tribal Environmental Policy in an Era of Self-Determination: The Role of Ethics, Economics, and Traditional Ecological Knowledge, 21 Vt. L. Rev. 225, 282-85 (1996).
152. Rebecca Tsosie, Tribal Environmental Policy in an Era of Self-Determination: The Role of Ethics, Economics, and Traditional Ecological Knowledge, 21 Vt. L. Rev. 225, 282-85 (1996).
153. U.S. Const. amend. V.
154. 348 U.S. 272.
155. 348 U.S. 272.
156. See generally Tee-Hit-Ton Indians, 348 U.S. at 316, 320-21 (describing evidence as Russia not "settling" the lands in Alaska, but merely engaging in sporadic trading with the Native peoples).
157. See generally Tee-Hit-Ton Indians, 348 U.S. at 316, 320-21 (describing evidence as Russia not "settling" the lands in Alaska, but merely engaging in sporadic trading with the Native peoples).
158. See generally Tee-Hit-Ton Indians, 348 U.S. at 316, 320-21 (describing evidence as Russia not "settling" the lands in Alaska, but merely engaging in sporadic trading with the Native peoples).
159. See generally Tee-Hit-Ton Indians, 348 U.S. at 316, 320-21 (describing evidence as Russia not "settling" the lands in Alaska, but merely engaging in sporadic trading with the Native peoples).
160. See generally Tee-Hit-Ton Indians, 348 U.S. at 316, 320-21 (describing evidence as Russia not "settling" the lands in Alaska, but merely engaging in sporadic trading with the Native peoples).
161. See generally Tee-Hit-Ton Indians, 348 U.S. at 316, 320-21 (describing evidence as Russia not "settling" the lands in Alaska, but merely engaging in sporadic trading with the Native peoples).
162. Miranda Fricker, Epistemic Injustice: Power and the Ethics of Knowing 7 (2007).
163. Miranda Fricker, Epistemic Injustice: Power and the Ethics of Knowing 7 (2007).
164. Miranda Fricker, Epistemic Injustice: Power and the Ethics of Knowing 7 (2007).
165. Miranda Fricker, Epistemic Injustice: Power and the Ethics of Knowing 7 (2007).
166. Miranda Fricker, Epistemic Injustice: Power and the Ethics of Knowing 7 (2007).
167. Miranda Fricker, Epistemic Injustice: Power and the Ethics of Knowing 7 (2007).
168. Rebecca Tsosie, Tribal Environmental Policy in an Era of Self-Determination: The Role of Ethics, Economics, and Traditional Ecological Knowledge, 21 Vt. L. Rev. 225, 282-85 (1996).
169. In re Exxon Valdez, 104 F.3d 1196 (9th Cir. 1997).
170. In re Exxon Valdez, 104 F.3d 1196 (9th Cir. 1997).
171. In re Exxon Valdez, No. A89-0095-CV (HRH), 1994 WL 182856, at *4.
172. Navajo Nation v. U.S. Forest Serv., 535 F.3d 1058 (9th Cir. 2008) (en banc). The plaintiffs in this case consisted of several Indian tribes throughout the Southwest as well as individual Indian practitioners and activist organizations.
173. Navajo Nation v. U.S. Forest Serv., 535 F.3d 1058 (9th Cir. 2008) (en banc). The plaintiffs in this case consisted of several Indian tribes throughout the Southwest as well as individual Indian practitioners and activist organizations.
174. Religious Freedom Restoration Act (RFRA) of 1993, Pub. L. No. 103-141, 107 Stat. 1488 (codified at 42 U.S.C. §§ 2000bb-2000bb-4 (2006)
175. see also City of Boerne v. Flores, 521 U.S. 507 (1997) (finding that RFRA is unconstitutional as applied to the actions of state governments).
176. Navajo Nation, 535 F.3d at 1074.
177. 485 U.S. 439 (1988).
178. 485 U.S. 439 (1988).
179. 485 U.S. 439 (1988).
180. Navajo Nation, 535 F.3d at 1072.
181. Navajo Nation, 535 F.3d at 1072.
182. Na Iwi O Na Kupuna O Mokapu v. Dalton, 894 F. Supp. 1397 (D. Haw. 1995).
183. Na Iwi O Na Kupuna O Mokapu v. Dalton, 894 F. Supp. 1397 (D. Haw. 1995).
184. Na Iwi O Na Kupuna O Mokapu v. Dalton, 894 F. Supp. 1397 (D. Haw. 1995).
185. Na Iwi O Na Kupuna O Mokapu v. Dalton, 894 F. Supp. 1397 (D. Haw. 1995).
186. Native Vill. of Kivilina v. ExxonMobil Corp., 663 F. Supp. 2d 863 (N.D. Cal. 2009), aff'd, 696 F.3d 849 (9th Cir. 2012).
187. Kivilina, 696 F.3d at 853.
188. Kivilina, 696 F.3d at 853.
189. Rebecca Tsosie, Tribal Environmental Policy in an Era of Self-Determination: The Role of Ethics, Economics, and Traditional Ecological Knowledge, 21 Vt. L. Rev. 225, 282-85 (1996).
190. See Kivilina, 663 F. Supp. 2d at 880-82 (discussing the difficulty of establishing causation for the purpose of Article III standing when global warming is attributed to numerous entities over centuries).
191. Miranda Fricker, Epistemic Injustice: Power and the Ethics of Knowing 7 (2007).
192. Miranda Fricker, Epistemic Injustice: Power and the Ethics of Knowing 7 (2007).
193. Miranda Fricker, Epistemic Injustice: Power and the Ethics of Knowing 7 (2007).
194. Miranda Fricker, Epistemic Injustice: Power and the Ethics of Knowing 7 (2007).
195. Miranda Fricker, Epistemic Injustice: Power and the Ethics of Knowing 7 (2007).
196. See generally John Reid, Comment, Biopiracy: The Struggle for Traditional Knowledge Rights, 34 Am. Indian L. Rev. 77 (2010).
197. Several policymakes explicitly made this point at a recent international conference on climate adaptation attended by this author. See, e.g., Panels at Climate Adaptation Futures: Second International Climate Change Adaptation Conference (May 29-31, 2012).
198. See generally John Reid, Comment, Biopiracy: The Struggle for Traditional Knowledge Rights, 34 Am. Indian L. Rev. 77 (2010).
199. Rebecca Tsosie, Tribal Environmental Policy in an Era of Self-Determination: The Role of Ethics, Economics, and Traditional Ecological Knowledge, 21 Vt. L. Rev. 225, 282-85 (1996).
200. Rebecca Tsosie, Tribal Environmental Policy in an Era of Self-Determination: The Role of Ethics, Economics, and Traditional Ecological Knowledge, 21 Vt. L. Rev. 225, 282-85 (1996).
201. Miranda Fricker, Epistemic Injustice: Power and the Ethics of Knowing 7 (2007).
202. Human rights law, after all, is premised upon a Kantian notion of equal respect for persons. See generally Jeremy Waldron, How Law Protects Dignity (N.Y. Univ. Sch. of Law, Pub. Law & Theory Research Paper Series, Working Paper No. 11-83, 2011), available at http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1973341. To the extent that public policies overtly disadvantage minority groups and cause suffering, human rights law counsels nation-states to act affirmatively to remedy this discrimination.
203. I use the terms "disadvantage" and "powerless" in their political sense. Although there is a popular belief that Native peoples now enjoy economic power, the benefits of Indian gaming are are pervasive and cannot be remedied by wealth transfers.
204. Rebecca Tsosie, Tribal Environmental Policy in an Era of Self-Determination: The Role of Ethics, Economics, and Traditional Ecological Knowledge, 21 Vt. L. Rev. 225, 282-85 (1996).
205. See Indian Citizenship Act of 1924, 8 U.S.C. § 1401(b) (2006) (granting citizenship to all Indians born in the United States).
206. Rebecca Tsosie, Tribal Environmental Policy in an Era of Self-Determination: The Role of Ethics, Economics, and Traditional Ecological Knowledge, 21 Vt. L. Rev. 225, 282-85 (1996).
207. U.S. Const. amend. V, XIV, § 1.
208. United States v. Navajo Nation, 537 U.S. 488, 506 (2003)
209. Cherokee Nation v. Georgia, 30 U.S. (5 Pet.) 1, 17 (1831).
210. See United States v. Dion, 476 U.S. 734, 738 (1986) ("As a general rule, Indians enjoy exclusive treaty rights to hunt and fish on lands reserved to them.... ").
211. See generally Minnesota v. Mille Lacs Band of Chippewa Indians, 526 U.S. 172 (1999)
212. see also United States v. Mitchell, 463 U.S. 206, 224 (1983).
213. See, e.g., Robert A. Williams, Jr., Columbus's Legacy: The Rehnquist Court's Perpetuation of European Cultural Racism Against American Indian Tribes, 39 Fed. B. News & J. 358, 363-65 (1992) (arguing that even the modern application of U.S. law to Indian tribes is influenced by the law's racist roots)
214. Robert A. Williams, Jr., The Algebra of Federal Indian Law: The Hard Trail of Decolonizing and Americanizing the White Man's Indian Jurisprudence, 1986 Wis. L. Rev. 219, 222 (1986) (arguing from a historical perspective that the Euro-centric legal system subjugates American Indian culture and traditions).
215. Rebecca Tsosie, Tribal Environmental Policy in an Era of Self-Determination: The Role of Ethics, Economics, and Traditional Ecological Knowledge, 21 Vt. L. Rev. 225, 282-85 (1996).
216. See George Cameron Coggins et al., Federal Public Land and Resources Law 44 (3d ed. 1993).
217. Johnson v. M'Intosh, 21 U.S. (8 Wheat.) 543 (1823).
218. See Carole E. Goldberg et al., American Indian Law: Native Nations and the Federal System 383 (6th ed. 2010).
219. See Carole E. Goldberg et al., American Indian Law: Native Nations and the Federal System 383 (6th ed. 2010).
220. 187 U.S. 553 (1903).
221. 187 U.S. 553 (1903).
222. United States v. Sioux Nation of Indians, 448 U.S. 371 (1980).
223. United States v. Sioux Nation of Indians, 448 U.S. 371 (1980).
224. United States v. Sioux Nation of Indians, 448 U.S. 371 (1980).
225. United States v. Sioux Nation of Indians, 448 U.S. 371 (1980).
226. United States v. Sioux Nation of Indians, 448 U.S. 371 (1980).
227. Treaty with the Cherokee, U.S.-Cherokee, Dec. 29, 1835, 7 Stat. 478.
228. Dawes General Allotment Act of 1887, ch. 119, 24 Stat. 388 (1887) (codified as amended at 25 U.S.C. §§ 331-333 (2000) (repealed 2000).
229. Dawes General Allotment Act of 1887, ch. 119, 24 Stat. 388 (1887) (codified as amended at 25 U.S.C. §§ 331-333 (2000) (repealed 2000).
230. Dawes General Allotment Act of 1887, ch. 119, 24 Stat. 388 (1887) (codified as amended at 25 U.S.C. §§ 331-333 (2000) (repealed 2000).
231. Lone Wolf v. Hitchcock, 187 U.S. 553, 565-66 (1903).
232. See Carole E. Goldberg et al., American Indian Law: Native Nations and the Federal System 383 (6th ed. 2010).
233. Dawes General Allotment Act ch. 119, 24 Stat. 388.
234. Alyce Adams, The Road Not Taken: How Tribes Choose Between Tribal and Indian Health Service Management of Health Care Resources, 24 Am. Indian Culture & Res. J. 21, 22 (2000).
235. Robert T. Anderson et al., American Indian Law: Cases and Commentary 103, 103-05 (2d ed. 2010)
236. See Carole E. Goldberg et al., American Indian Law: Native Nations and the Federal System 383 (6th ed. 2010).
237. Robert T. Anderson et al., American Indian Law: Cases and Commentary 103, 103-05 (2d ed. 2010)
238. The Indian Citizenship Act of 1924 conferred citizenship on all non-citizen American Indians born within the territorial limits of the United States.
239. See Carole E. Goldberg et al., American Indian Law: Native Nations and the Federal System 383 (6th ed. 2010).
240. The First Amendment protects individual rights to free speech, freedom of association, and religious freedom. The Fifth Amendment Due Process Clause provides that no one shall be "deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law, " and contains procedural and substantive protections.
241. Rebecca Tsosie, Tribal Environmental Policy in an Era of Self-Determination: The Role of Ethics, Economics, and Traditional Ecological Knowledge, 21 Vt. L. Rev. 225, 282-85 (1996).
242. Cohen's Handbook of Federal Indian Law § 17.01, at 1074-75 (Nell Jessup Newton et al. eds., 2005) [hereinafter Cohen].
243. See George Cameron Coggins et al., Federal Public Land and Resources Law 44 (3d ed. 1993).
244. Rebecca Tsosie, Tribal Environmental Policy in an Era of Self-Determination: The Role of Ethics, Economics, and Traditional Ecological Knowledge, 21 Vt. L. Rev. 225, 282-85 (1996).
245. Rebecca Tsosie, Tribal Environmental Policy in an Era of Self-Determination: The Role of Ethics, Economics, and Traditional Ecological Knowledge, 21 Vt. L. Rev. 225, 282-85 (1996).
246. Rebecca Tsosie, Tribal Environmental Policy in an Era of Self-Determination: The Role of Ethics, Economics, and Traditional Ecological Knowledge, 21 Vt. L. Rev. 225, 282-85 (1996).
247. See Indians and Energy: Exploitation and Opportunity in the American Southwest 15 (Sherry L. Smith & Brian Frehner eds., 2010) [hereinafter Indians and Energy].
248. Rebecca Tsosie, Tribal Environmental Policy in an Era of Self-Determination: The Role of Ethics, Economics, and Traditional Ecological Knowledge, 21 Vt. L. Rev. 225, 282-85 (1996).
249. Barbara Rose Johnston & Susan Dawson, Resource Use and Abuse on Native American Land: Uranium Mining in the American Southwest, in Who Pays the Price: The Sociocultural Context of Environmental Crisis 142, 144 (Barbara Rose Johnston ed., 1994).
250. Barbara Rose Johnston & Susan Dawson, Resource Use and Abuse on Native American Land: Uranium Mining in the American Southwest, in Who Pays the Price: The Sociocultural Context of Environmental Crisis 142, 144 (Barbara Rose Johnston ed., 1994).
251. Barbara Rose Johnston & Susan Dawson, Resource Use and Abuse on Native American Land: Uranium Mining in the American Southwest, in Who Pays the Price: The Sociocultural Context of Environmental Crisis 142, 144 (Barbara Rose Johnston ed., 1994).
252. Barbara Rose Johnston & Susan Dawson, Resource Use and Abuse on Native American Land: Uranium Mining in the American Southwest, in Who Pays the Price: The Sociocultural Context of Environmental Crisis 142, 144 (Barbara Rose Johnston ed., 1994).
253. Barbara Rose Johnston & Susan Dawson, Resource Use and Abuse on Native American Land: Uranium Mining in the American Southwest, in Who Pays the Price: The Sociocultural Context of Environmental Crisis 142, 144 (Barbara Rose Johnston ed., 1994).
254. Barbara Rose Johnston & Susan Dawson, Resource Use and Abuse on Native American Land: Uranium Mining in the American Southwest, in Who Pays the Price: The Sociocultural Context of Environmental Crisis 142, 144 (Barbara Rose Johnston ed., 1994).
255. Barbara Rose Johnston & Susan Dawson, Resource Use and Abuse on Native American Land: Uranium Mining in the American Southwest, in Who Pays the Price: The Sociocultural Context of Environmental Crisis 142, 144 (Barbara Rose Johnston ed., 1994).
256. Barbara Rose Johnston & Susan Dawson, Resource Use and Abuse on Native American Land: Uranium Mining in the American Southwest, in Who Pays the Price: The Sociocultural Context of Environmental Crisis 142, 144 (Barbara Rose Johnston ed., 1994).
257. Barbara Rose Johnston & Susan Dawson, Resource Use and Abuse on Native American Land: Uranium Mining in the American Southwest, in Who Pays the Price: The Sociocultural Context of Environmental Crisis 142, 144 (Barbara Rose Johnston ed., 1994).
258. Barbara Rose Johnston & Susan Dawson, Resource Use and Abuse on Native American Land: Uranium Mining in the American Southwest, in Who Pays the Price: The Sociocultural Context of Environmental Crisis 142, 144 (Barbara Rose Johnston ed., 1994).
259. Rebecca Tsosie, Tribal Environmental Policy in an Era of Self-Determination: The Role of Ethics, Economics, and Traditional Ecological Knowledge, 21 Vt. L. Rev. 225, 282-85 (1996).
260. Rebecca Tsosie, Tribal Environmental Policy in an Era of Self-Determination: The Role of Ethics, Economics, and Traditional Ecological Knowledge, 21 Vt. L. Rev. 225, 282-85 (1996).
261. Rebecca Tsosie, Tribal Environmental Policy in an Era of Self-Determination: The Role of Ethics, Economics, and Traditional Ecological Knowledge, 21 Vt. L. Rev. 225, 282-85 (1996).
262. Rebecca Tsosie, Tribal Environmental Policy in an Era of Self-Determination: The Role of Ethics, Economics, and Traditional Ecological Knowledge, 21 Vt. L. Rev. 225, 282-85 (1996).
263. Rebecca Tsosie, Tribal Environmental Policy in an Era of Self-Determination: The Role of Ethics, Economics, and Traditional Ecological Knowledge, 21 Vt. L. Rev. 225, 282-85 (1996).
264. Rebecca Tsosie, Tribal Environmental Policy in an Era of Self-Determination: The Role of Ethics, Economics, and Traditional Ecological Knowledge, 21 Vt. L. Rev. 225, 282-85 (1996).
265. Barbara Rose Johnston & Susan Dawson, Resource Use and Abuse on Native American Land: Uranium Mining in the American Southwest, in Who Pays the Price: The Sociocultural Context of Environmental Crisis 142, 144 (Barbara Rose Johnston ed., 1994).
266. Barbara Rose Johnston & Susan Dawson, Resource Use and Abuse on Native American Land: Uranium Mining in the American Southwest, in Who Pays the Price: The Sociocultural Context of Environmental Crisis 142, 144 (Barbara Rose Johnston ed., 1994).
267. Barbara Rose Johnston & Susan Dawson, Resource Use and Abuse on Native American Land: Uranium Mining in the American Southwest, in Who Pays the Price: The Sociocultural Context of Environmental Crisis 142, 144 (Barbara Rose Johnston ed., 1994).
268. Barbara Rose Johnston & Susan Dawson, Resource Use and Abuse on Native American Land: Uranium Mining in the American Southwest, in Who Pays the Price: The Sociocultural Context of Environmental Crisis 142, 144 (Barbara Rose Johnston ed., 1994).
269. Barbara Rose Johnston & Susan Dawson, Resource Use and Abuse on Native American Land: Uranium Mining in the American Southwest, in Who Pays the Price: The Sociocultural Context of Environmental Crisis 142, 144 (Barbara Rose Johnston ed., 1994).
270. Barbara Rose Johnston & Susan Dawson, Resource Use and Abuse on Native American Land: Uranium Mining in the American Southwest, in Who Pays the Price: The Sociocultural Context of Environmental Crisis 142, 144 (Barbara Rose Johnston ed., 1994).
271. Barbara Rose Johnston & Susan Dawson, Resource Use and Abuse on Native American Land: Uranium Mining in the American Southwest, in Who Pays the Price: The Sociocultural Context of Environmental Crisis 142, 144 (Barbara Rose Johnston ed., 1994).
272. Barbara Rose Johnston & Susan Dawson, Resource Use and Abuse on Native American Land: Uranium Mining in the American Southwest, in Who Pays the Price: The Sociocultural Context of Environmental Crisis 142, 144 (Barbara Rose Johnston ed., 1994).
273. Barbara Rose Johnston & Susan Dawson, Resource Use and Abuse on Native American Land: Uranium Mining in the American Southwest, in Who Pays the Price: The Sociocultural Context of Environmental Crisis 142, 144 (Barbara Rose Johnston ed., 1994).
274. Andrew Needham, "A Piece of the Action:" Navajo Nationalism, Energy Development, and Metropolitan Inequality, in Indians and Energy, 2010, at 111, 115.
275. For example, the Hopi Tribal government and the Navajo Nation endorse continued production of coal on their respective reservations and the operation of the coal-fired power plants that employ many tribal members, despite the pollution that naturally results from these industries, because there are very few options for employment in this rural area of the Southwest.
276. In 1932, the USPHS commenced the Tuskegee Syphilis study to document the nature of syphilis, including its progression in human beings. The subjects of the study were 399 black sharecroppers in Alabama who had latent syphilis and 201 men without the disease, who constituted the control group. The physicians who conducted the study did not inform the men about their disease or provide treatment. They did provide meals, medical exams, and burial insurance to ensure that the men did not seek treatment elsewhere. The study operated covertly until news sources revealed the story in 1972. After significant national embarrassment, the federal government ended the study and initiated policy changes to provide protection for human subjects of medical research. Myrtle Adams et al., Final Report of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study Legacy Committee-May 20, 1996, Univ. of Va. Claude Moore Health Sci. Libr., http://www.hsl.virginia.edu/historical/medical_history/bad_blood/report.cfm (last visited July 12, 2012).
277. In 1932, the USPHS commenced the Tuskegee Syphilis study to document the nature of syphilis, including its progression in human beings. The subjects of the study were 399 black sharecroppers in Alabama who had latent syphilis and 201 men without the disease, who constituted the control group. The physicians who conducted the study did not inform the men about their disease or provide treatment. They did provide meals, medical exams, and burial insurance to ensure that the men did not seek treatment elsewhere. The study operated covertly until news sources revealed the story in 1972. After significant national embarrassment, the federal government ended the study and initiated policy changes to provide protection for human subjects of medical research. Myrtle Adams et al., Final Report of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study Legacy Committee-May 20, 1996, Univ. of Va. Claude Moore Health Sci. Libr., http://www.hsl.virginia.edu/historical/medical_history/bad_blood/report.cfm (last visited July 12, 2012).
278. Barbara Rose Johnston & Susan Dawson, Resource Use and Abuse on Native American Land: Uranium Mining in the American Southwest, in Who Pays the Price: The Sociocultural Context of Environmental Crisis 142, 144 (Barbara Rose Johnston ed., 1994).
279. Rebecca Tsosie, Tribal Environmental Policy in an Era of Self-Determination: The Role of Ethics, Economics, and Traditional Ecological Knowledge, 21 Vt. L. Rev. 225, 282-85 (1996).
280. Rebecca Tsosie, Tribal Environmental Policy in an Era of Self-Determination: The Role of Ethics, Economics, and Traditional Ecological Knowledge, 21 Vt. L. Rev. 225, 282-85 (1996).
281. See El Paso Natural Gas Co. v. Neztsosie, 526 U.S. 473, 485-86 (1999).
282. Price-Anderson Nuclear Industries Indemnity Act, 42 U.S.C. §§ 2011-2297h (2006).
283. 42 U.S.C. § 2210.
284. See El Paso Natural Gas Co., 526 U.S. at 485-86.
285. Navajo Nation Code Ann. tit. 18, § 1303 (2005).
286. Navajo Nation Code Ann. tit. 18, § 1303 (2005).
287. Navajo Nation Code Ann. tit. 7, § 254.
288. See generally HRI, Inc. v. EPA, 198 F.3d 1224 (10th Cir. 2000) (holding private company was subject to federal permitting on fee land within Navajo Nation).
289. See, e.g., Wash. Dep't of Ecology v. EPA, 752 F.2d 1465, 1469-72 (9th Cir. 1985) (explaining the intersection of federal Indian law with environmental law in the context of the respective regulatory authority of the states, the EPA, and tribal governments)
290. see also 18 U.S.C. § 1151 (2006) (defining "Indian Country" for jurisdictional purposes).
291. Cf. Wash. Dep't of Ecology, 752 F.2d at 1472 (holding that the EPA appropriately refused to allow the State of Washington to apply its hazardous waste regulations to Indian lands).
292. For an excellent analysis of the current litigation within its historical context, see Claire R. Newman, Creating an Environmental No-Man's Land: The Tenth Circuit's Departure from Environmental and Indian Law Protecting a Tribal Community's Health and Environment, 1 Wash. J. Envtl. L. & Pol'y 352, 356-401 (2011).
293. 608 F.3d 1131 (10th Cir. 2010) (en banc).
294. 608 F.3d 1131 (10th Cir. 2010) (en banc).
295. 608 F.3d 1131 (10th Cir. 2010) (en banc).
296. 608 F.3d 1131 (10th Cir. 2010) (en banc).
297. 608 F.3d 1131 (10th Cir. 2010) (en banc).
298. 522 U.S. 520, 532-34 (1998).
299. See Hydro Res., 608 F.3d at 1135, 1141.
300. See Hydro Res., 608 F.3d at 1135, 1141.
301. See Patrick Moore, Going Nuclear, Wash. Post, Apr. 16, 2006, http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/04/14/AR2006041401209.html (portraying nuclear energy as the wave of the future and the dangers of uranium mining remedied).
302. Rebecca Tsosie, Tribal Environmental Policy in an Era of Self-Determination: The Role of Ethics, Economics, and Traditional Ecological Knowledge, 21 Vt. L. Rev. 225, 282-85 (1996).
303. I think it is safe to say that we don't "know" that this is a safe technology. There are no studies on this in relation to human health, and we don't want to resurrect the "radiation experiments" of the 1950s.
304. Rebecca Tsosie, Tribal Environmental Policy in an Era of Self-Determination: The Role of Ethics, Economics, and Traditional Ecological Knowledge, 21 Vt. L. Rev. 225, 282-85 (1996).
305. 598 F.3d 677 (10th Cir. 2010).
306. 598 F.3d 677 (10th Cir. 2010).
307. 598 F.3d 677 (10th Cir. 2010).
308. Rebecca Tsosie, Tribal Environmental Policy in an Era of Self-Determination: The Role of Ethics, Economics, and Traditional Ecological Knowledge, 21 Vt. L. Rev. 225, 282-85 (1996).
309. see also Morris, 598 F.3d at 682.
310. Richard A. Du Bey & James M. Grijalva, Closing the Circle: Tribal Implementation of the Superfund Program in the Reservation Environment, 9 J. Nat. Resources & Envtl. L. 279, 288-89 (1993-1994).
311. See Indian Health Care Improvement Act, Pub. L. No. 94-437, § 2(a), 90 Stat. 1400, 1400 (codified as amended at 25 U.S.C. § 1601 (2006).
312. Agency for Healthcare Research & Quality, U.S. Dep't of Health & Human Servs., National Healthcare Disparities Report, 2009 180-233 (2010) [hereinafter National Healthcare Disparities Report].
313. See Stephen J. Kunitz, The History and Politics of U.S. Health Care Policy for American Indians and Alaskan Natives, 86 Am. J. Pub. Health 1464, 1465, 1473 (1996).
314. See generally American Indian Health: Innovations in Health Care, Promotion, and Policy (Everett R. Rhoades ed., 2000) [hereinafter American Indian Health].
315. Yvette Roubideaux, Beyond Red Lake-The Persistent Crisis in American Indian Health Care, 353 N. Eng. J. Med. 1881, 1882 (Nov. 3, 2005), available at http://www.nejm.org/ doi/full/10.1056/NEJMp058095.
316. Yvette Roubideaux, Beyond Red Lake-The Persistent Crisis in American Indian Health Care, 353 N. Eng. J. Med. 1881, 1882 (Nov. 3, 2005), available at http://www.nejm.org/ doi/full/10.1056/NEJMp058095.
317. Thomas Stewart, Philip May & Anita Muneta, A Navajo Health Consumer Survey, 18 Med. Care 1183 (1980).
318. Comm. for the Study of the Future of Pub. Health, Inst. of Med., The Future of Public Health 1 (1st ed. 1988).
319. See generally F. Douglas Scutchfield & C. William Keck, Concepts and Definitions of Public Health Practice, in Principles of Public Health Practice 3, 3-9 (Stephen J. Williams ed., 1997).
320. Jacobson v. Massachusetts, 197 U.S. 11 (1905) (finding that state authority to require compulsory vaccination is acceptable under state police power).
321. U.S. Const. amend. X.
322. Cohen's Handbook of Federal Indian Law § 17.01, at 1074-75 (Nell Jessup Newton et al. eds., 2005) [hereinafter Cohen].
323. Cohen's Handbook of Federal Indian Law § 17.01, at 1074-75 (Nell Jessup Newton et al. eds., 2005) [hereinafter Cohen].
324. Indian Citizenship Act of 1924, 8 U.S.C. § 1401(b) (2006).
325. Rose L. Pfefferbaum et al., Providing for the Health Care Needs of Native Americans: Policy, Programs, Procedures, and Practices, 21 Am. Indian L. Rev. 211, 214 (1997).
326. Lloyd B. Miller, The Contemporary Statutory Framework for Native Healthcare, Lecture at the New Directions in Native Healthcare CLE Conference (Nov. 5, 2010).
327. See Stephen J. Kunitz, The History and Politics of U.S. Health Care Policy for American Indians and Alaskan Natives, 86 Am. J. Pub. Health 1464, 1465, 1473 (1996).
328. See generally American Indian Health: Innovations in Health Care, Promotion, and Policy (Everett R. Rhoades ed., 2000) [hereinafter American Indian Health].
329. Rose L. Pfefferbaum et al., Providing for the Health Care Needs of Native Americans: Policy, Programs, Procedures, and Practices, 21 Am. Indian L. Rev. 211, 214 (1997).
330. see also Sharon O'Brien, Tribes and Indians: With Whom Does the United States Maintain a Relationship?, 66 Notre Dame L. Rev. 1461, 1467 (1991).
331. Robert T. Anderson et al., American Indian Law: Cases and Commentary 103, 103-05 (2d ed. 2010)
332. 25 U.S.C. § 13 (2006).
333. Transfer Act of Aug. 5, 1954, Pub. L. No. 83-568, 68 Stat. 674.
334. Transfer Act of Aug. 5, 1954, Pub. L. No. 83-568, 68 Stat. 674.
335. 25 U.S.C. § 450.
336. 25 U.S.C. § 450.
337. 25 U.S.C. § 450.
338. See Indian Self-Determination Act Amendments of 1994, Pub. L. No. 103-413, 108 Stat. 4250 (codified as amended in scattered sections of 25 U.S.C. (2006).
339. See generally American Indian Health: Innovations in Health Care, Promotion, and Policy (Everett R. Rhoades ed., 2000) [hereinafter American Indian Health].
340. Rose L. Pfefferbaum et al., Providing for the Health Care Needs of Native Americans: Policy, Programs, Procedures, and Practices, 21 Am. Indian L. Rev. 211, 214 (1997).
341. In Arizona, the Gila River Indian Community exemplifies this capacity, and the tribal government has set a very high standard for health care on the reservation.
342. Agency for Healthcare Research & Quality, U.S. Dep't of Health & Human Servs., National Healthcare Disparities Report, 2009 180-233 (2010) [hereinafter National Healthcare Disparities Report].
343. Rebecca Tsosie, Tribal Environmental Policy in an Era of Self-Determination: The Role of Ethics, Economics, and Traditional Ecological Knowledge, 21 Vt. L. Rev. 225, 282-85 (1996).
344. Rebecca Tsosie, Tribal Environmental Policy in an Era of Self-Determination: The Role of Ethics, Economics, and Traditional Ecological Knowledge, 21 Vt. L. Rev. 225, 282-85 (1996).
345. Rebecca Tsosie, Tribal Environmental Policy in an Era of Self-Determination: The Role of Ethics, Economics, and Traditional Ecological Knowledge, 21 Vt. L. Rev. 225, 282-85 (1996).
346. Rebecca Tsosie, Tribal Environmental Policy in an Era of Self-Determination: The Role of Ethics, Economics, and Traditional Ecological Knowledge, 21 Vt. L. Rev. 225, 282-85 (1996).
347. Havasupai Tribe of the Havasupai Reservation v. Ariz. Bd. of Regents, 204 P.3d 1063, 1067 (Ariz. Ct. App. 2008).
348. Havasupai Tribe of the Havasupai Reservation v. Ariz. Bd. of Regents, 204 P.3d 1063, 1067 (Ariz. Ct. App. 2008).
349. See generally L.B. Jorde, W.S. Watkins & M.J. Bamshad, Population Genomics: A Bridge from Evolutionary History to Genetic Medicine, 10 Hum. Molecular Genetics 2199 (2001)
350. J.R. Stinchcombe & H.E. Hoekstra, Combining Population Genomics and Quantitative Genetics: Finding the Genes Underlying Ecologically Important Traits, Heredity 158 (2008).
351. Rebecca Tsosie, Tribal Environmental Policy in an Era of Self-Determination: The Role of Ethics, Economics, and Traditional Ecological Knowledge, 21 Vt. L. Rev. 225, 282-85 (1996).
352. Rebecca Tsosie, Tribal Environmental Policy in an Era of Self-Determination: The Role of Ethics, Economics, and Traditional Ecological Knowledge, 21 Vt. L. Rev. 225, 282-85 (1996).
353. This is the language used to justify the Human Genome Project in which scientists competed to "map" the human genome.
354. For example, the Havasupai Tribe considers its place of origin to be in the Grand Canyon, while the scientific researchers are interested in proving the Tribe's history of migrations from another place to the Grand Canyon. The scientific claim is presented as a search for the "truth, " while the Havasupai Tribe's claim is represented as a "myth" substantiating the Tribe's identity as the Original People of the Grand Canyon, which is a form of epistemic injustice at the level of an identity claim.
355. Rebecca Tsosie, Tribal Environmental Policy in an Era of Self-Determination: The Role of Ethics, Economics, and Traditional Ecological Knowledge, 21 Vt. L. Rev. 225, 282-85 (1996).
356. In this sense, "ownership" stands for the right to use and control the disposition of human tissue and biological samples. See Moore v. Regents of Univ. of Cal., 793 P.2d 479, 488-93 (Cal. 1990) (holding that an individual who agreed to give blood and tissue samples in the course of treatment did not retain an interest in the samples sufficient to claim a share of the proceeds from a cell line developed by University of California researchers and patented under federal law for commercial use).
357. For example, the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act specifies that it "reflects the unique relationship between the Federal Government and Indian tribes and Native Hawaiian organizations and should not be construed to establish a precedent with respect to any other individual, organization or foreign government. " 25 U.S.C. § 3010 (2006).
358. Rebecca Tsosie, Tribal Environmental Policy in an Era of Self-Determination: The Role of Ethics, Economics, and Traditional Ecological Knowledge, 21 Vt. L. Rev. 225, 282-85 (1996).
359. 18 U.S.C. § 1170 (2006).
360. 18 U.S.C. § 1170 (2006).
361. See Jack F. Trope & Walter R. Echo-Hawk, The Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act: Background and Legislative History, 24 Ariz. St. L.J. 35, 39-43 (1992).
362. See Antiquities Act of 1906, 16 U.S.C. §§ 431-433 (2006).
363. 25 U.S.C. § 3001(3).
364. Rebecca Tsosie, Tribal Environmental Policy in an Era of Self-Determination: The Role of Ethics, Economics, and Traditional Ecological Knowledge, 21 Vt. L. Rev. 225, 282-85 (1996).
365. 25 U.S.C. § 3002.
366. 18 U.S.C. § 1170 (2006).
367. 25 U.S.C. § 3003.
368. 25 U.S.C. § 3003.
369. See Cecily Harms, NAGPRA in Colorado: A Success Story, 83 U. Colo. L. Rev. 593, 615 (2012) ("[O]ver 700 human remains and over 2,000 associated funerary objects [have been repatriated]. ")
370. Jeffrey Kluger, The Legal Battle: Archeology: Who Should Own the Bones?, Time, Mar. 5, 2006, http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1169901,00.html ("[T]o date, about 30,000 human remains and half a million funerary objects have been returned to tribes.").
371. See Bonnichsen v. United States, 367 F.3d 864, 879-82 (9th Cir. 2004).
372. See Fallon Paiute-Shoshone Tribe v. U.S. Bureau of Land Mgmt., 455 F. Supp. 2d 1207, 1216 (D. Nev. 2006).
373. Rebecca Tsosie, Tribal Environmental Policy in an Era of Self-Determination: The Role of Ethics, Economics, and Traditional Ecological Knowledge, 21 Vt. L. Rev. 225, 282-85 (1996).
374. Rebecca Tsosie, Tribal Environmental Policy in an Era of Self-Determination: The Role of Ethics, Economics, and Traditional Ecological Knowledge, 21 Vt. L. Rev. 225, 282-85 (1996).
375. Rebecca Tsosie, Tribal Environmental Policy in an Era of Self-Determination: The Role of Ethics, Economics, and Traditional Ecological Knowledge, 21 Vt. L. Rev. 225, 282-85 (1996).
376. Rebecca Tsosie, Tribal Environmental Policy in an Era of Self-Determination: The Role of Ethics, Economics, and Traditional Ecological Knowledge, 21 Vt. L. Rev. 225, 282-85 (1996).
377. 367 F.3d 864 (9th Cir. 2004).
378. Rebecca Tsosie, Tribal Environmental Policy in an Era of Self-Determination: The Role of Ethics, Economics, and Traditional Ecological Knowledge, 21 Vt. L. Rev. 225, 282-85 (1996).
379. Rebecca Tsosie, Tribal Environmental Policy in an Era of Self-Determination: The Role of Ethics, Economics, and Traditional Ecological Knowledge, 21 Vt. L. Rev. 225, 282-85 (1996).
380. Rebecca Tsosie, Tribal Environmental Policy in an Era of Self-Determination: The Role of Ethics, Economics, and Traditional Ecological Knowledge, 21 Vt. L. Rev. 225, 282-85 (1996).
381. Rebecca Tsosie, Tribal Environmental Policy in an Era of Self-Determination: The Role of Ethics, Economics, and Traditional Ecological Knowledge, 21 Vt. L. Rev. 225, 282-85 (1996).
382. Rebecca Tsosie, Tribal Environmental Policy in an Era of Self-Determination: The Role of Ethics, Economics, and Traditional Ecological Knowledge, 21 Vt. L. Rev. 225, 282-85 (1996).
383. See generally Jeff Benedict, No Bone Unturned: Inside the World of a Top Forensic Scientist and His Work on America's Most Notorious Crimes and Disasters (2004)
384. David Hurst Thomas, Skull Wars: Kennewick Man, Archeology, and the Battle for Native American Identity (2000).
385. Bonnichsen v. United States, 367 F.3d 864, 882 (9th Cir. 2004).
386. Bonnichsen v. United States, 367 F.3d 864, 882 (9th Cir. 2004).
387. Bonnichsen v. United States, 367 F.3d 864, 882 (9th Cir. 2004).
388. Bonnichsen v. United States, 367 F.3d 864, 882 (9th Cir. 2004).
389. Rebecca Tsosie, Tribal Environmental Policy in an Era of Self-Determination: The Role of Ethics, Economics, and Traditional Ecological Knowledge, 21 Vt. L. Rev. 225, 282-85 (1996).
390. Rebecca Tsosie, Tribal Environmental Policy in an Era of Self-Determination: The Role of Ethics, Economics, and Traditional Ecological Knowledge, 21 Vt. L. Rev. 225, 282-85 (1996).
391. Rebecca Tsosie, Tribal Environmental Policy in an Era of Self-Determination: The Role of Ethics, Economics, and Traditional Ecological Knowledge, 21 Vt. L. Rev. 225, 282-85 (1996).
392. Disposition of Culturally Unidentifiable Native American Human Remains, 43 C.F.R. § 10.11 (2012).
393. See, e.g., Editorial, Who Owns the Past?, Sci. Am., (Mar. 27, 2012), available at http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=who-owns-the-past (arguing that repatriation rules are too favorable to American Indian communities and jeopardize the interests of science).
394. See White v. Univ. of Cal., No. C12-01978RS, at 2, 5 (N.D. Cal. Oct. 9, 2012) (order granting Kumeyaay Cultural Repatriation Committee's motion to dismiss and granting Regents of the University of California's motion to dismiss).
395. See White v. Univ. of Cal., No. C12-01978RS, at 2, 5 (N.D. Cal. Oct. 9, 2012) (order granting Kumeyaay Cultural Repatriation Committee's motion to dismiss and granting Regents of the University of California's motion to dismiss).
396. See White v. Univ. of Cal., No. C12-01978RS, at 2, 5 (N.D. Cal. Oct. 9, 2012) (order granting Kumeyaay Cultural Repatriation Committee's motion to dismiss and granting Regents of the University of California's motion to dismiss).
397. See White v. Univ. of Cal., No. C12-01978RS, at 2, 5 (N.D. Cal. Oct. 9, 2012) (order granting Kumeyaay Cultural Repatriation Committee's motion to dismiss and granting Regents of the University of California's motion to dismiss).
398. See White v. Univ. of Cal., No. C12-01978RS, at 2, 5 (N.D. Cal. Oct. 9, 2012) (order granting Kumeyaay Cultural Repatriation Committee's motion to dismiss and granting Regents of the University of California's motion to dismiss).
399. see also 43 C.F.R. § 10.11 (2012).
400. White v. Univ. of Cal., No. 12625891 (Super. Ct. of Cal. Apr. 16, 2012).
401. See, e.g., Editorial, Who Owns the Past?, Sci. Am., (Mar. 27, 2012), available at http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=who-owns-the-past (arguing that repatriation rules are too favorable to American Indian communities and jeopardize the interests of science).
402. See, e.g., Editorial, Who Owns the Past?, Sci. Am., (Mar. 27, 2012), available at http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=who-owns-the-past (arguing that repatriation rules are too favorable to American Indian communities and jeopardize the interests of science).
403. See, e.g., Editorial, Who Owns the Past?, Sci. Am., (Mar. 27, 2012), available at http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=who-owns-the-past (arguing that repatriation rules are too favorable to American Indian communities and jeopardize the interests of science).
404. See, e.g., Editorial, Who Owns the Past?, Sci. Am., (Mar. 27, 2012), available at http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=who-owns-the-past (arguing that repatriation rules are too favorable to American Indian communities and jeopardize the interests of science).
405. Duane Champagne, A New Attack on Repatriation, Indian Country Today Media Network (Apr. 9, 2012), http://indiancountrytodaymedianetwork.com/2012/04/09/a-new-attackon-repatriation-107181.
406. Duane Champagne, A New Attack on Repatriation, Indian Country Today Media Network (Apr. 9, 2012), http://indiancountrytodaymedianetwork.com/2012/04/09/a-new-attackon-repatriation-107181.
407. Duane Champagne, A New Attack on Repatriation, Indian Country Today Media Network (Apr. 9, 2012), http://indiancountrytodaymedianetwork.com/2012/04/09/a-new-attackon-repatriation-107181.
408. Duane Champagne, A New Attack on Repatriation, Indian Country Today Media Network (Apr. 9, 2012), http://indiancountrytodaymedianetwork.com/2012/04/09/a-new-attackon-repatriation-107181.
409. Duane Champagne, A New Attack on Repatriation, Indian Country Today Media Network (Apr. 9, 2012), http://indiancountrytodaymedianetwork.com/2012/04/09/a-new-attackon-repatriation-107181.
410. See Carole E. Goldberg et al., American Indian Law: Native Nations and the Federal System 383 (6th ed. 2010).
411. Cohen's Handbook of Federal Indian Law § 17.01, at 1074-75 (Nell Jessup Newton et al. eds., 2005) [hereinafter Cohen].
412. Cohen's Handbook of Federal Indian Law § 17.01, at 1074-75 (Nell Jessup Newton et al. eds., 2005) [hereinafter Cohen].
413. Cohen's Handbook of Federal Indian Law § 17.01, at 1074-75 (Nell Jessup Newton et al. eds., 2005) [hereinafter Cohen].
414. See Montana v. United States, 450 U.S. 544, 565 (1981) ("A tribe may regulate, through taxation, licensing, or other means, activities of nonmembers who enter consensual relationships with the tribe or its members, through commercial dealing, contracts, leases, or other arrangements. ").
415. For example, the Salt River Pima-Maricopa Indian Community has entered a partnership agreement with T-Gen Corporation. See Collaborations with Genetics Researchers, Am. Indian & Alaska Native Genetics Resource Center, http://genetics.ncai.org/casestudy/ collaborations.cfm (last visited Nov. 18, 2012).
416. See, e.g., Montana, 450 U.S. at 565 (confirming tribal power to regulate the activities of nonmembers who enter consensual relationships with the tribe or its members, for example, through a contract or lease agreement).
417. See, e.g., Minnesota v. Mille Lacs Band of Chippewa Indians, 526 U.S. 172 (1999)
418. Worcester v. Georgia, 31 U.S. (6 Pet.) 515 (1832)
419. Cherokee Nation v. Georgia, 30 U.S. (5 Pet.) 1, 10 (1831).
420. See Wallace Coffey & Rebecca Tsosie, Rethinking The Tribal Sovereignty Doctrine: Cultural Sovereignty and the Collective Future of Indian Nations, 12 Stan. L. & Pol'y Rev. 191 (2001).
421. Cohen's Handbook of Federal Indian Law § 17.01, at 1074-75 (Nell Jessup Newton et al. eds., 2005) [hereinafter Cohen].
422. See S. James Anaya, Indigenous Peoples in International Law 131-41 (2d ed. 2004) (explaining that cultural integrity is a key norm encompassed within the concept of selfdetermination).
423. Bonnichsen v. United States, 367 F.3d 864, 881-82 (9th Cir. 2004).
424. Rebecca Tsosie, Tribal Environmental Policy in an Era of Self-Determination: The Role of Ethics, Economics, and Traditional Ecological Knowledge, 21 Vt. L. Rev. 225, 282-85 (1996).
425. On November 2, 2010, Oklahoma voters approved a proposed constitutional amendment that would prevent Oklahoma state courts from considering or using Sharia law. Awad v. Ziriax, 670 F.3d 1111, 1116 (10th Cir. 2012). After a federal district court granted a preliminary injunction to prevent the Oklahoma State Election Board from certifying this election result, and thereby making the amendment effective, the Board sought review, but the Tenth Circuit found no abuse of discretion by the lower court and affirmed the preliminary injunction.
426. See, e.g., Crow v. Gullet, 541 F. Supp. 785, 794 (D.S.D.1982) (failing to find any authority for the proposition that a right or cause of action is created by international human rights law).
427. See, e.g., Mabo v. Queensland (No.2) (1992) 175 CLR 1, 5 (Austl.). In this case, the High Court of Australia held for the first time that the indigenous peoples of Australia possessed aboriginal land rights and that the earlier nineteenth century doctrines that failed to recognize these rights violated human rights law.
428. See S. James Anaya, Indigenous Peoples in International Law 131-41 (2d ed. 2004) (explaining that cultural integrity is a key norm encompassed within the concept of selfdetermination).
429. S. James Anaya, Report of the Special Rapporteur on the Situation of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms of Indigenous People, U.N. Doc. A/HRC/12/34 (July 15, 2009).
430. U.N. Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, G.A. Res. 61/295, ¶ 3, U.N. Doc. A/RES/61/295 (Oct. 2, 2007) [hereinafter Declaration].
431. U.N. Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, G.A. Res. 61/295, ¶ 3, U.N. Doc. A/RES/61/295 (Oct. 2, 2007) [hereinafter Declaration].
432. U.N. Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, G.A. Res. 61/295, ¶ 3, U.N. Doc. A/RES/61/295 (Oct. 2, 2007) [hereinafter Declaration].
433. Rebecca Tsosie, Tribal Environmental Policy in an Era of Self-Determination: The Role of Ethics, Economics, and Traditional Ecological Knowledge, 21 Vt. L. Rev. 225, 282-85 (1996).
434. U.N. Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, G.A. Res. 61/295, ¶ 3, U.N. Doc. A/RES/61/295 (Oct. 2, 2007) [hereinafter Declaration].
435. Rebecca Tsosie, Tribal Environmental Policy in an Era of Self-Determination: The Role of Ethics, Economics, and Traditional Ecological Knowledge, 21 Vt. L. Rev. 225, 282-85 (1996).
436. E.S.C. Res. 1982/34, U.N. Doc. E/RES/1982/82 (May 7, 1982).
437. Rebecca Tsosie, Tribal Environmental Policy in an Era of Self-Determination: The Role of Ethics, Economics, and Traditional Ecological Knowledge, 21 Vt. L. Rev. 225, 282-85 (1996).
438. Rebecca Tsosie, Tribal Environmental Policy in an Era of Self-Determination: The Role of Ethics, Economics, and Traditional Ecological Knowledge, 21 Vt. L. Rev. 225, 282-85 (1996).
439. U.N. GAOR, 61st Sess., 107th plen. mtg. at 18-19, U.N. Doc. A/61/PV.107 (Sept. 13, 2007).
440. Christopher J. Fromherz, Indigenous Peoples' Courts: Egalitarian Juridical Pluralism, Self-Determination, and the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, 156 U. Pa. L. Rev. 1341, 1346 (2008).
441. U.N. Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, G.A. Res. 61/295, ¶ 3, U.N. Doc. A/RES/61/295 (Oct. 2, 2007) [hereinafter Declaration].
442. See President Barack Obama, Remarks at the White House Tribal Nations Conference (Dec. 16, 2010), in 2010 Daily Comp. Pres. Doc. 1076, at 1-5
443. Announcement of U.S. Support for the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, U.S. Dept. of State 1-2 (Jan. 12, 2011), http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/154782.pdf [hereinafter Announcement of U.S. Support].
444. Announcement of U.S. Support for the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, U.S. Dept. of State 1-2 (Jan. 12, 2011), http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/154782.pdf [hereinafter Announcement of U.S. Support].
445. Rebecca Tsosie, Tribal Environmental Policy in an Era of Self-Determination: The Role of Ethics, Economics, and Traditional Ecological Knowledge, 21 Vt. L. Rev. 225, 282-85 (1996).
446. U.N. Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, G.A. Res. 61/295, ¶ 3, U.N. Doc. A/RES/61/295 (Oct. 2, 2007) [hereinafter Declaration].
447. U.N. Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, G.A. Res. 61/295, ¶ 3, U.N. Doc. A/RES/61/295 (Oct. 2, 2007) [hereinafter Declaration].
448. U.N. Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, G.A. Res. 61/295, ¶ 3, U.N. Doc. A/RES/61/295 (Oct. 2, 2007) [hereinafter Declaration].
449. U.N. Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, G.A. Res. 61/295, ¶ 3, U.N. Doc. A/RES/61/295 (Oct. 2, 2007) [hereinafter Declaration].
450. U.N. Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, G.A. Res. 61/295, ¶ 3, U.N. Doc. A/RES/61/295 (Oct. 2, 2007) [hereinafter Declaration].
451. U.N. Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, G.A. Res. 61/295, ¶ 3, U.N. Doc. A/RES/61/295 (Oct. 2, 2007) [hereinafter Declaration].
452. U.N. Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, G.A. Res. 61/295, ¶ 3, U.N. Doc. A/RES/61/295 (Oct. 2, 2007) [hereinafter Declaration].
453. U.N. Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, G.A. Res. 61/295, ¶ 3, U.N. Doc. A/RES/61/295 (Oct. 2, 2007) [hereinafter Declaration].
454. U.N. Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, G.A. Res. 61/295, ¶ 3, U.N. Doc. A/RES/61/295 (Oct. 2, 2007) [hereinafter Declaration].
455. U.N. Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, G.A. Res. 61/295, ¶ 3, U.N. Doc. A/RES/61/295 (Oct. 2, 2007) [hereinafter Declaration].
456. U.N. Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, G.A. Res. 61/295, ¶ 3, U.N. Doc. A/RES/61/295 (Oct. 2, 2007) [hereinafter Declaration].
457. U.N. Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, G.A. Res. 61/295, ¶ 3, U.N. Doc. A/RES/61/295 (Oct. 2, 2007) [hereinafter Declaration].
458. U.N. Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, G.A. Res. 61/295, ¶ 3, U.N. Doc. A/RES/61/295 (Oct. 2, 2007) [hereinafter Declaration].
459. U.N. Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, G.A. Res. 61/295, ¶ 3, U.N. Doc. A/RES/61/295 (Oct. 2, 2007) [hereinafter Declaration].
460. U.N. Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, G.A. Res. 61/295, ¶ 3, U.N. Doc. A/RES/61/295 (Oct. 2, 2007) [hereinafter Declaration].
461. U.N. Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, G.A. Res. 61/295, ¶ 3, U.N. Doc. A/RES/61/295 (Oct. 2, 2007) [hereinafter Declaration].
462. U.N. Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, G.A. Res. 61/295, ¶ 3, U.N. Doc. A/RES/61/295 (Oct. 2, 2007) [hereinafter Declaration].
463. U.N. Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, G.A. Res. 61/295, ¶ 3, U.N. Doc. A/RES/61/295 (Oct. 2, 2007) [hereinafter Declaration].
464. U.N. Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, G.A. Res. 61/295, ¶ 3, U.N. Doc. A/RES/61/295 (Oct. 2, 2007) [hereinafter Declaration].
465. U.N. Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, G.A. Res. 61/295, ¶ 3, U.N. Doc. A/RES/61/295 (Oct. 2, 2007) [hereinafter Declaration].
466. See, e.g., Genome-Wide Association Studies, U.S. Dep't of Health & Hum. Servs, http://gwas.nih.gov (last visited Nov. 18, 2012).
467. See Donald J. Willison, Trends in Collection, Use and Disclosure of Personal Information in Contemporary Health Research: Challenges for Research Governance, 13 Health L. Rev. 107, 110 (2005) (detailing the misuse of blood samples taken from members of the Nuu-Chah-Nulth First Nation of British Columbia, Canada).
468. U.N. Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, G.A. Res. 61/295, ¶ 3, U.N. Doc. A/RES/61/295 (Oct. 2, 2007) [hereinafter Declaration].
469. U.N. Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, G.A. Res. 61/295, ¶ 3, U.N. Doc. A/RES/61/295 (Oct. 2, 2007) [hereinafter Declaration].
470. 43 C.F.R. § 10.11 (2012).
471. U.N. Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, G.A. Res. 61/295, ¶ 3, U.N. Doc. A/RES/61/295 (Oct. 2, 2007) [hereinafter Declaration].
472. See, e.g., Editorial, Who Owns the Past?, Sci. Am., (Mar. 27, 2012), available at http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=who-owns-the-past (arguing that repatriation rules are too favorable to American Indian communities and jeopardize the interests of science).