Infections associated with body modification

Journal of the Formosan Medical Association

Volumn 111, Issue 12, 2012, Pages 667-681

  Wong, Samson Sai Yin ^a   Wong, Sally Cheuk Ying ^b   Yuen, Kwok Yung ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF HONG KONG   (Hong Kong)

^b QUEEN MARY HOSPITAL   (Hong Kong)

Author keywords

Body modification; Body piercing; Breast implants; Mesotherapy; Tattooing

Indexed keywords

ANTIBIOTIC AGENT; ANTINEOPLASTIC AGENT; BACITRACIN; BETA LACTAM ANTIBIOTIC; BETA LACTAMASE INHIBITOR; CEFAZOLIN; CEPHALOSPORIN DERIVATIVE; CLINDAMYCIN; GENTAMICIN; MACROLIDE; PENICILLIN DERIVATIVE; POVIDONE IODINE;

ALCOHOLISM; AURICULAR CHONDRITIS; BODY PIERCING; BREAST ABSCESS; BREAST AUGMENTATION; CANCER CHEMOTHERAPY; CANCER RADIOTHERAPY; CHORIOAMNIONITIS; CONSUMER ATTITUDE; DERMATITIS; ENDOCARDITIS; EXTERNAL EAR DISEASE; FOREIGN BODY; GLOSSITIS; HAND WASHING; HEALTH CARE PERSONNEL; HEALTH HAZARD; HUMAN; INFECTION; INSTRUMENT STERILIZATION; LIPOSUCTION; LYMPHADENITIS; MESOTHERAPY; PROSTHESIS INFECTION; REVIEW; SIALOADENITIS; SKIN ABSCESS; SKIN INFECTION; SURGICAL INFECTION; TATTOOING; TETANUS; TONGUE ABSCESS; TOOTH ABSCESS;

BODY MODIFICATION, NON-THERAPEUTIC; HUMANS; INFECTION; INFECTION CONTROL;

EID: 84871617992     PISSN: None     EISSN: 09296646     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.jfma.2012.10.016     Document Type: Review

References (126)

1. Mayers L.B., Judelson D.A., Moriarty B.W., Rundell K.W. Prevalence of body art (body piercing and tattooing) in university undergraduates and incidence of medical complications. Mayo Clin Proc 2002, 77:29-34.
2. Klügl I., Hiller K.A., Landthaler M., Bäumler W. Incidence of health problems associated with tattooed skin: a nation-wide survey in German-speaking countries. Dermatology 2010, 221:43-50.
3. Cegolon L., Mastrangelo G., Mazzoleni F., Majori S., Baldovin T., Xodo C. VAHP Working Group. Body art in 4,277 Italian secondary school adolescents: prevalence and associations with personal and family characteristics. Fam Med 2010, 42:273-279.
4. Huxley C., Grogan S. Tattooing, piercing, healthy behaviours and health value. J Health Psychol 2005, 10:831-841.
5. Carroll S.T., Riffenburgh R.H., Roberts T.A., Myhre E.B. Tattoos and body piercings as indicators of adolescent risk-taking behaviors. Pediatrics 2002, 109:1021-1027.
6. Deschesnes M., Finès P., Demers S. Are tattooing and body piercing indicators of risk-taking behaviours among high school students?. J Adolesc 2006, 29:379-393.
7. Braithwaite R., Robillard A., Woodring T., Stephens T., Arriola K.J. Tattooing and body piercing among adolescent detainees: relationship to alcohol and other drug use. J Subst Abuse 2001, 13:5-16.
8. Weber D.J., Rutala W.A., Sickbert-Bennett E.E. Outbreaks associated with contaminated antiseptics and disinfectants. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2007, 51:4217-4224.
9. Doerrbecker J., Friesland M., Ciesek S., Erichsen T.J., Mateu-Gelabert P., Steinmann J., et al. Inactivation and survival of hepatitis C virus on inanimate surfaces. J Infect Dis 2011, 204:1830-1838.
10. Hamsch C., Hartschuh W., Enk A., Flux K. A Chinese tattoo paint as a vector of atypical mycobacteria-outbreak in 7 patients in Germany. Acta Derm Venereol 2011, 91:63-64.
11. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus skin infections among tattoo recipients-Ohio, Kentucky, and Vermont, 2004-2005. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2006, 55:677-679. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
12. Drage L.A., Ecker P.M., Orenstein R., Phillips P.K., Edson R.S. An outbreak of Mycobacterium chelonae infections in tattoos. J Am Acad Dermatol 2010, 62:501-506.
13. Kennedy B.S., Bedard B., Younge M., Tuttle D., Ammerman E., Ricci J., et al. Outbreak of Mycobacterium chelonae infection associated with tattoo ink. N Engl J Med 2012, 367:1020-1024.
14. Kapsimalakou S., Grande-Nagel I., Simon M., Fischer D., Thill M., Stöckelhuber B.M. Breast abscess following nipple piercing: a case report and review of the literature. Arch Gynecol Obstet 2010, 282:623-626.
15. Keene W.E., Markum A.C., Samadpour M. Outbreak of Pseudomonas aeruginosa infections caused by commercial piercing of upper ear cartilage. JAMA 2004, 291:981-985.
16. Yu C.H., Minnema B.J., Gold W.L. Bacterial infections complicating tongue piercing. Can J Infect Dis Med Microbiol 2010, 21:e70-e74.
17. De Moor R.J., De Witte A.M., Delmé K.I., De Bruyne M.A., Hommez G.M., Goyvaerts D. Dental and oral complications of lip and tongue piercings. Br Dent J 2005, 199:506-509.
18. Gill J.B., Karp J.M., Kopycka-Kedzierawski D.T. Oral piercing injuries treated in United States emergency departments, 2002-2008. Pediatr Dent 2012, 34:56-60.
19. Fisher C.G., Kacica M.A., Bennett N.M. Risk factors for cartilage infections of the ear. Am J Prev Med 2005, 29:204-209.
20. Hickey B.M., Schoch E.A., Bigeard L., Musset A.M. Complications following oral piercing. A study among 201 young adults in Strasbourg, France. Community Dent Health 2010, 27:35-40.
21. Vieira E.P., Ribeiro A.L., Pinheiro Jde J., Alves Sde M. Oral piercings: immediate and late complications. J Oral Maxillofac Surg 2011, 69:3032-3037.
22. Franchelli S., Vassallo F., Porzio C., Mannucci M., Priano V., Schenone E., et al. Breast implant infections after surgical reconstruction in patients with breast cancer: assessment of risk factors and pathogens over extended post-operative observation. Surg Infect (Larchmt) 2012, 13:154-158.
23. Safranek T.J., Jarvis W.R., Carson L.A., Cusick L.B., Bland L.A., Swenson J.M., et al. Mycobacterium chelonae wound infections after plastic surgery employing contaminated gentian violet skin-marking solution. N Engl J Med 1987, 317:197-201.
24. Rahav G., Pitlik S., Amitai Z., Lavy A., Blech M., Keller N., et al. An outbreak of Mycobacterium jacuzzii infection following insertion of breast implants. Clin Infect Dis 2006, 43:823-830.
25. Hvilsom G.B., Hölmich L.R., Henriksen T.F., Lipworth L., McLaughlin J.K., Friis S. Local complications after cosmetic breast augmentation: results from the Danish Registry for Plastic Surgery of the Breast. Plast Surg Nurs 2010, 30:172-179.
26. Henriksen T.F., Hölmich L.R., Fryzek J.P., Friis S., McLaughlin J.K., Høyer A.P., et al. Incidence and severity of short-term complications after breast augmentation: results from a nationwide breast implant registry. Ann Plast Surg 2003, 51:531-539.
27. Araco A., Gravante G., Araco F., Delogu D., Cervelli V., Walgenbach K. Infections of breast implants in aesthetic breast augmentations: a single-center review of 3,002 patients. Aesthetic Plast Surg 2007, 31:325-329.
28. Kim J.Y., Davila A.A., Persing S., Connor C.M., Jovanovic B., Khan S.A., et al. A meta-analysis of human acellular dermis and submuscular tissue expander breast reconstruction. Plast Reconstr Surg 2012, 129:28-41.
29. Alderman A.K., Wilkins E.G., Kim H.M., Lowery J.C. Complications in postmastectomy breast reconstruction: two-year results of the Michigan Breast Reconstruction Outcome Study. Plast Reconstr Surg 2002, 109:2265-2274.
30. Henriksen T.F., Fryzek J.P., Hölmich L.R., McLaughlin J.K., Krag C., Karlsen R., et al. Reconstructive breast implantation after mastectomy for breast cancer: clinical outcomes in a nationwide prospective cohort study. Arch Surg 2005, 140:1152-1159.
31. Cheng N.X., Wang Y.L., Wang J.H., Zhang X.M., Zhong H. Complications of breast augmentation with injected hydrophilic polyacrylamide gel. Aesthetic Plast Surg 2002, 26:375-382.
32. Qiao Q., Wang X., Sun J., Zhao R., Liu Z., Wang Y., et al. Management for postoperative complications of breast augmentation by injected polyacrylamide hydrogel. Aesthetic Plast Surg 2005, 29:156-161.
33. Feng X.L., Yi C., Zhang Y., Wang Y., Li W., Yang M., et al. Analysis of the complications induced by polyacrylamide hydrogel injection. Plast Reconstr Surg 2004, 114:261-262.
34. Luo S.K., Chen G.P., Sun Z.S., Cheng N.X. Our strategy in complication management of augmentation mammaplasty with polyacrylamide hydrogel injection in 235 patients. J Plast Reconstr Aesthet Surg 2011, 64:731-737.
35. Manafi A., Emami A.H., Pooli A.H., Habibi M., Saidian L. Unacceptable results with an accepted soft tissue filler: polyacrylamide hydrogel. Aesthetic Plast Surg 2010, 34:413-422.
36. Pallua N., Wolter T.P. A 5-year assessment of safety and aesthetic results after facial soft-tissue augmentation with polyacrylamide hydrogel (Aquamid): a prospective multicenter study of 251 patients. Plast Reconstr Surg 2010, 125:1797-1804.
37. Sañudo A., Vallejo F., Sierra M., Hoyos J.G., Yepes S., Wolff J.C., et al. Nontuberculous mycobacteria infection after mesotherapy: preliminary report of 15 cases. Int J Dermatol 2007, 46:649-653.
38. Correa N.E., Cataño J.C., Mejía G.I., Realpe T., Orozco B., Estrada S., et al. Outbreak of mesotherapy-associated cutaneous infections caused by Mycobacterium chelonae in Colombia. Jpn J Infect Dis 2010, 63:143-145.
39. Munayco C.V., Grijalva C.G., Culqui D.R., Bolarte J.L., Suárez-Ognio L.A., Quispe N., et al. Outbreak of persistent cutaneous abscesses due to Mycobacterium chelonae after mesotherapy sessions, Lima, Peru. Rev Saude Publica 2008, 42:146-149.
40. Outbreak of mesotherapy-associated skin reactions-District of Columbia area, January-February 2005. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2005, 54:1127-1130. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
41. Carbonne A., Brossier F., Arnaud I., Bougmiza I., Caumes E., Meningaud J.P., et al. Outbreak of nontuberculous mycobacterial subcutaneous infections related to multiple mesotherapy injections. J Clin Microbiol 2009, 47:1961-1964.
42. Regnier S., Cambau E., Meningaud J.P., Guihot A., Deforges L., Carbonne A., et al. Clinical management of rapidly growing mycobacterial cutaneous infections in patients after mesotherapy. Clin Infect Dis 2009, 49:1358-1364.
43. Quiñones C., Ramalle-Gómara E., Perucha M., Lezaun M.E., Fernández-Vilariño E., García-Morrás P., et al. An outbreak of Mycobacterium fortuitum cutaneous infection associated with mesotherapy. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol 2010, 24:604-606.
44. Furuya E.Y., Paez A., Srinivasan A., Cooksey R., Augenbraun M., Baron M., et al. Outbreak of Mycobacterium abscessus wound infections among " lipotourists" from the United States who underwent abdominoplasty in the Dominican Republic. Clin Infect Dis 2008, 46:1181-1188.
45. Chan H.L., Poon L.M., Chan S.G., Teo J.W. The perils of medical tourism: NDM-1-positive Escherichia coli causing febrile neutropenia in a medical tourist. Singapore Med J 2011, 52:299-302.
46. Ghorpade A. Tattoo inoculation lupus vulgaris in two Indian ladies. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol 2006, 20:476-477.
47. Ghorpade A. Lupus vulgaris over a tattoo mark-inoculation tuberculosis. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol 2003, 17:569-571.
48. Singh G., Tutakne M.A., Tiwari V.D., Dutta R.K. Inoculation leprosy developing after tattooing-a case report. Indian J Lepr 1985, 57:887-888.
49. Trefzer U., Schmollack K.P., Stockfleth E., Sterry W., Kolde G. Verrucae in a multicolored decorative tattoo. J Am Acad Dermatol 2004, 50:478-479.
50. Miller D.M., Brodell R.T. Verruca restricted to the areas of black dye within a tattoo. Arch Dermatol 1994, 130:1453-1454.
51. Ragland H.P., Hubbell C., Stewart K.R., Nesbitt L.T. Verruca vulgaris inoculated during tattoo placement. Int J Dermatol 1994, 33:796-797.
52. Baxter S.Y., Deck D.H. Tattoo-acquired verruca plana. Am Fam Physician 1993, 47:732.
53. Parker C., Kaminski G., Hill D. Zygomycosis in a tattoo, caused by Saksenaea vasiformis. Australas J Dermatol 1986, 27:107-111.
54. Jacob C.I. Tattoo-associated dermatoses: a case report and review of the literature. Dermatol Surg 2002, 28:962-965.
55. Limentani A.E., Elliott L.M., Noah N.D., Lamborn J.K. An outbreak of hepatitis B from tattooing. Lancet 1979, 2:86-88.
56. Samuel M.C., Doherty P.M., Bulterys M., Jenison S.A. Association between heroin use, needle sharing and tattoos received in prison with hepatitis B and C positivity among street-recruited injecting drug users in New Mexico, USA. Epidemiol Infect 2001, 127:475-484.
57. Haley R.W., Fischer R.P. Commercial tattooing as a potentially important source of hepatitis C infection. Clinical epidemiology of 626 consecutive patients unaware of their hepatitis C serologic status. Medicine (Baltimore) 2001, 80:134-151.
58. Haley R.W., Fischer R.P. The tattooing paradox: are studies of acute hepatitis adequate to identify routes of transmission of subclinical hepatitis C infection?. Arch Intern Med 2003, 163:1095-1098.
59. Estebanez Estebanez P., Colomo Gomez C., Zunzunegui Pastor M.V., Rua Figueroa M., Perez M., Ortiz C., et al. Jails and AIDS. Risk factors for HIV infection in the prisons of Madrid. Gac Sanit 1990, 4:100-105.
60. De A Nishioka S., Gyorkos T.W., Joseph L., Collet J.P., MacLean J.D. Tattooing and transfusion-transmitted diseases in Brazil: a hospital-based cross-sectional matched study. Eur J Epidemiol 2003, 18:441-449.
61. De A Nishioka S., Gyorkos T.W., Joseph L., Collet J.P., Maclean J.D. Tattooing and risk for transfusion-transmitted diseases: the role of the type, number and design of the tattoos, and the conditions in which they were performed. Epidemiol Infect 2002, 128:63-71.
62. HIV link to Bali tattoo 23 December 2011, Department of Health, Government of Western Australia, Available at:, [accessed 20.08.12]. http://www.health.wa.gov.au/press/view_press.cfm%3fid%3d1104.
63. Pugatch D., Mileno M., Rich J.D. Possible transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 from body piercing. Clin Infect Dis 1998, 26:767-768.
64. Daniel A.R., Shehab T. Transmission of hepatitis C through swapping body jewelry. Pediatrics 2005, 116:1264-1265.
65. Hayes M.O., Harkness G.A. Body piercing as a risk factor for viral hepatitis: an integrative research review. Am J Infect Control 2001, 29:271-274.
66. Kaur C., Sarkar R., Kanwar A.J. How safe is nose-piercing? Inoculation cutaneous tuberculosis revisited. Int J Dermatol 2003, 42:645-646.
67. O'Malley C.D., Smith N., Braun R., Prevots D.R. Tetanus associated with body piercing. Clin Infect Dis 1998, 27:1343-1344.
68. Meltzer D.I. Complications of body piercing. Am Fam Physician 2005, 72:2029-2034.
69. Marenzi B. Body piercing: a patient safety issue. J Perianesth Nurs 2004, 19:4-10.
70. Biggar R.J., Haughie G.E. Medical problems of ear piercing. N Y State J Med 1975, 75:1460-1462.
71. Cortese T.A., Dickey R.A. Complications of ear piercing. Am Fam Physician 1971, 4:66-72.
72. McCarthy V.P., Peoples W.M. Toxic shock syndrome after ear piercing. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1988, 7:741-742.
73. Ekelius L., Bjorkman H., Kalin M., Fohlman J. Fournier's gangrene after genital piercing. Scand J Infect Dis 2004, 36:610-612.
74. Sandhu A., Gross M., Wylie J., Van Caeseele P., Plourde P. Pseudomonas aeruginosa necrotizing chondritis complicating high helical ear piercing case report: clinical and public health perspectives. Can J Public Health 2007, 98:74-77.
75. Campiglio G. Ear reconstruction after auricular chondritis secondary to ear piercing. Plast Reconstr Surg 2004, 113:768-769.
76. Rowshan H.H., Keith K., Baur D., Skidmore P. Pseudomonas aeruginosa infection of the auricular cartilage caused by " high ear piercing" : a case report and review of the literature. J Oral Maxillofac Surg 2008, 66:543-546.
77. Lee T.C., Gold W.L. Necrotizing Pseudomonas chondritis after piercing of the upper ear. CMAJ 2011, 183:819-821.
78. Cicchetti S., Skillman J., Gault D.T. Piercing the upper ear: a simple infection, a difficult reconstruction. Br J Plast Surg 2002, 55:194-197.
79. Lewis C.G., Wells M.K., Jennings W.C. Mycobacterium fortuitum breast infection following nipple-piercing, mimicking carcinoma. Breast J 2004, 10:363-365.
80. Trupiano J.K., Sebek B.A., Goldfarb J., Levy L.R., Hall G.S., Procop G.W. Mastitis due to Mycobacterium abscessus after body piercing. Clin Infect Dis 2001, 33:131-134.
81. Lee S.H., Chung M.H., Lee J.S., Kim E.S., Suh J.G. A case of Staphylococcus aureus endocarditis after ear piercing in a patient with normal cardiac valve and a questionnaire survey on adverse events of body piercing in college students of Korea. Scand J Infect Dis 2006, 38:130-132.
82. Lick S.D., Edozie S.N., Woodside K.J., Conti V.R. Streptococcus viridans endocarditis from tongue piercing. J Emerg Med 2005, 29:57-59.
83. Dubose J., Pratt J.W. Victim of fashion: endocarditis after oral piercing. Curr Surg 2004, 61:474-477.
84. Akhondi H., Rahimi A.R. Haemophilus aphrophilus endocarditis after tongue piercing. Emerg Infect Dis 2002, 8:850-851.
85. Tronel H., Chaudemanche H., Pechier N., Doutrelant L., Hoen B. Endocarditis due to Neisseria mucosa after tongue piercing. Clin Microbiol Infect 2001, 7:275-276.
86. Friedel J.M., Stehlik J., Desai M., Granato J.E. Infective endocarditis after oral body piercing. Cardiol Rev 2003, 11:252-255.
87. Millar B.C., Moore J.E. Antibiotic prophylaxis, body piercing and infective endocarditis. J Antimicrob Chemother 2004, 53:123-126.
88. Pittet B., Montandon D., Pittet D. Infection in breast implants. Lancet Infect Dis 2005, 5:94-106.
89. Gabriel S.E., Woods J.E., O'Fallon W.M., Beard C.M., Kurland L.T., Melton L.J. Complications leading to surgery after breast implantation. N Engl J Med 1997, 336:677-682.
90. Brickman M., Parsa A.A., Parsa F.D. Mycobacterium cheloneae infection after breast augmentation. Aesthetic Plast Surg 2005, 29:116-118.
91. Vinh D.C., Rendina A., Turner R., Embil J.M. Breast implant infection with Mycobacterium fortuitum group: report of case and review. J Infect 2006, 52:e63-e67.
92. Adams W.P., Rios J.L., Smith S.J. Enhancing patient outcomes in aesthetic and reconstructive breast surgery using triple antibiotic breast irrigation: six-year prospective clinical study. Plast Reconstr Surg 2006, 117:30-36.
93. Burkhardt B.R., Dempsey P.D., Schnur P.L., Tofield J.J. Capsular contracture: a prospective study of the effect of local antibacterial agents. Plast Reconstr Surg 1986, 77:919-932.
94. Mirzabeigi M.N., Mericli A.F., Ortlip T., Tuma G.A., Copit S.E., Fox J.W., et al. Evaluating the role of postoperative prophylactic antibiotics in primary and secondary breast augmentation: a retrospective review. Aesthet Surg J 2012, 32:61-68.
95. Sajid M.S., Hutson K., Akhter N., Kalra L., Rapisarda I.F., Bonomi R. An updated meta-analysis on the effectiveness of preoperative prophylactic antibiotics in patients undergoing breast surgical procedures. Breast J 2012, 18:312-317.
96. Mirzabeigi M.N., Lee M., Smartt J.M., Jandali S., Sonnad S.S., Serletti J.M. Extended trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole prophylaxis for implant reconstruction in the previously irradiated chest wall. Plast Reconstr Surg 2012, 129:37e-45e.
97. Clayton J.L., Bazakas A., Lee C.N., Hultman C.S., Halvorson E.G. Once is not enough: withholding postoperative prophylactic antibiotics in prosthetic breast reconstruction is associated with an increased risk of infection. Plast Reconstr Surg 2012, 130:495-502.
98. Christensen L.H., Breiting V.B., Aasted A., Jorgensen A., Kebuladze I. Long-term effects of polyacrylamide hydrogel on human breast tissue. Plast Reconstr Surg 2003, 111:1883-1890.
99. Lee C.J., Kim S.G., Kim L., Choi M.S., Lee S.I. Unfavorable findings following breast augmentation using injected polyacrylamide hydrogel. Plast Reconstr Surg 2004, 114:1967-1968.
100. Zhao Y., Qiao Q., Yue Y., Kou X., Liu Z. Clinical and histologic evaluation of a new injectable implant: hydrophilic polyacrylamide gel. Ann Plast Surg 2004, 53:267-272.
101. Matarasso A., Pfeifer T.M. Mesotherapy for body contouring. Plast Reconstr Surg 2005, 115:1420-1424. Plastic Surgery Educational Foundation DATA Committee.
102. Rotunda A.M., Kolodney M.S. Mesotherapy and phosphatidylcholine injections: historical clarification and review. Dermatol Surg 2006, 32:465-480.
103. Garcia-Navarro X., Barnadas M.A., Dalmau J., Coll P., Gurguí M., Alomar A. Mycobacterium abscessus infection secondary to mesotherapy. Clin Exp Dermatol 2008, 33:658-659.
104. Nagore E., Ramos P., Botella-Estrada R., Ramos-Níguez J.A., Sanmartín O., Castejón P. Cutaneous infection with Mycobacterium fortuitum after localized microinjections (mesotherapy) treated successfully with a triple drug regimen. Acta Derm Venereol 2001, 81:291-293.
105. Newman M.I., Camberos A.E., Ascherman J. Mycobacterium abscessus outbreak in US patients linked to offshore surgicenter. Ann Plast Surg 2005, 55:107-110.
106. Giannella M., Pistella E., Perciaccante A., Venditti M. Soft tissue infection caused by Mycobacterium chelonae following a liposculpture and lipofilling procedure. Ann Ital Med Int 2005, 20:245-247.
107. Dessy L.A., Mazzocchi M., Fioramonti P., Scuderi N. Conservative management of local Mycobacterium chelonae infection after combined liposuction and lipofilling. Aesthetic Plast Surg 2006, 30:717-722.
108. Cooksey R.C., de Waard J.H., Yakrus M.A., Rivera I., Chopite M., Toney S.R., et al. Mycobacterium cosmeticum sp nov., a novel rapidly growing species isolated from a cosmetic infection and from a nail salon. Int J Syst Evol Microbiol 2004, 54:2385-2391.
109. Viana-Niero C., Lima K.V., Lopes M.L., Rabello M.C., Marsola L.R., Brilhante V.C., et al. Molecular characterization of Mycobacterium massiliense and Mycobacterium bolletii in isolates collected from outbreaks of infections after laparoscopic surgeries and cosmetic procedures. J Clin Microbiol 2008, 46:850-855.
110. Apostolou A., Bolcen S.J., Dave V., Jani N., Lasker B.A., Tan C.G., et al. Nocardia cyriacigeorgica infections attributable to unlicensed cosmetic procedures-an emerging public health problem?. Clin Infect Dis 2012, 55:251-253.
111. Gamo R., Aguilar A., Cuétara M., Gonzalez-Valle O., Houmani M., Martín L., et al. Sporotrichosis following mesotherapy for arthrosis. Acta Derm Venereol 2007, 87:430-431.
112. Sturm L.P., Cooter R.D., Mutimer K.L., Graham J.C., Maddern G.J. A systematic review of dermal fillers for age-related lines and wrinkles. ANZ J Surg 2011, 81:9-17.
113. Cohen J.L. Understanding, avoiding, and managing dermal filler complications. Dermatol Surg 2008, 34(Suppl. 1):S92-S99.
114. Rousso J.J., Pitman M.J. Enterococcus faecalis complicating dermal filler injection: a case of virulent facial abscesses. Dermatol Surg 2010, 36:1638-1641.
115. Liu H.L., Cheung W.Y. Complications of polyacrylamide hydrogel (PAAG) injection in facial augmentation. J Plast Reconstr Aesthet Surg 2010, 63:e9-12.
116. Latest update on investigation of septic shock and sepsis cases 7 October 2012, Centre for Health Protection, Department of Health, Hong Kong, Available at:, [accessed 10.10.12]. http://www.chp.gov.hk/en/content/116/26658.html.
117. Wallace R.J., Brown B.A., Griffith D.E. Nosocomial outbreaks/pseudo-outbreaks caused by nontuberculous mycobacteria. Annu Rev Microbiol 1998, 52:453-490.
118. Worp J., Boonstra A., Coutinho R.A., van den Hoek J.A. Tattooing, permanent makeup and piercing in Amsterdam; guidelines, legislation and monitoring. Euro Surveill 2006, 11:34-36.
119. Skin penetration code of best practice Published in March 2001, NSW Ministry of Health, Australia, Available at:, [accessed 20.08.12]. http://www.health.nsw.gov.au/resources/publichealth/environment/pdf/cobp_skin_pen.pdf.
120. Infection control guidelines for tattooists, body piercers and acupuncturists Published in February 2010, Essex Health Protection Unit, Available at:, [accessed 20.08.12]. http://www.hpa.org.uk/webc/HPAwebFile/HPAweb_C/1194947330313.
121. Recommended guidelines on infection control for skin penetration practice 2005, Centre for Health Protection, Hong Kong, Available at:, [accessed 20.08.12]. http://chp.gov.hk/files/pdf/Skin_Penetration_Practice_20080221.pdf.
122. Oberdorfer A., Wiggers J.H., Bowman J., Lecathelinais C. Infection control practices among tattooists and body piercers in Sydney, Australia. Am J Infect Control 2003, 31:447-456.
123. Oberdorfer A., Wiggers J.H., Considine R.J., Bowman J., Cockburn J. Skin penetration operators' knowledge and attitudes towards infection control. Am J Health Behav 2003, 27:125-134.
124. Hellard M., Aitken C., Mackintosh A., Ridge A., Bowden S. Investigation of infection control practices and knowledge of hepatitis C among body-piercing practitioners. Am J Infect Control 2003, 31:215-220.
125. Oberdorfer A., Wiggers J.H., Bowman J., Burrows S., Cockburn J., Considine R.J. Monitoring and educational feedback to improve the compliance of tattooists and body piercers with infection control standards: a randomized controlled trial. Am J Infect Control 2004, 32:147-154.
126. Lehman E.J., Huy J., Levy E., Viet S.M., Mobley A., McCleery T.Z. Bloodborne pathogen risk reduction activities in the body piercing and tattooing industry. Am J Infect Control 2010, 38:130-138.