A review of the ecological effects of radiofrequency electromagnetic fields (RF-EMF)

Environment International

Volumn 51, Issue , 2013, Pages 116-140

  Cucurachi, S ^a   Tamis, W L M ^a   Vijver, M G ^a   Peijnenburg, W J G M ^a,b   Bolte, J F B ^b   de Snoo, G R ^a  

^a LEIDEN UNIVERSITY   (Netherlands)

^b NATIONAL INSTITUTE FOR PUBLIC HEALTH AND THE ENVIRONMENT   (Netherlands)

Author keywords

Biodiversity; Ecological effect; Electromagnetic field exposure; EMF; Mobile telecommunication; Radiofrequencies

Indexed keywords

AMPLITUDE MODULATION; BIODIVERSITY; ELECTRIC POTENTIAL; ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS; MAMMALS; PUBLISHING;

ANIMAL STUDIES; DOSE EFFECTS; ECOLOGICAL EFFECT; ECOSYSTEM LEVELS; ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD EXPOSURE; ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS; FIELD STUDIES; FREQUENCY RANGES; LABORATORY STUDIES; LOW DOSAGE; MOBILE TELECOMMUNICATIONS; PHYSICAL PARAMETERS; PLANT STUDY; RADIO FREQUENCIES; RADIO FREQUENCY ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS; SCIENTIFIC STUDIES; SYSTEMATIC REVIEW;

ECOLOGY;

BIODIVERSITY; BIRD; ECOLOGICAL IMPACT; ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD; FERTILIZATION (REPRODUCTION); INSECT; INTERNET; LABORATORY METHOD; MOBILE COMMUNICATION;

AMPLITUDE MODULATION; BEHAVIOR; BIRD; DOSE RESPONSE; DROSOPHILA MELANOGASTER; ECOTOXICITY; ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD; FERTILITY; HIGH INTENSITY FOCUSED ULTRASOUND; HONEYBEE; INSECT; MICROWAVE RADIATION; MORTALITY; MUTATION RATE; NONHUMAN; PEER REVIEW; PLANT; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RADIATION DOSE; RADIOFREQUENCY RADIATION; REPRODUCTION; REVIEW; RODENT; SPECIES IDENTIFICATION; VERTEBRATE; YEAST; ZYGOTE;

EID: 84871474874     PISSN: 01604120     EISSN: 18736750     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2012.10.009     Document Type: Review

References (175)

1. Abraçado L.G., Esquivel D.M.S., Alves O.C., Wajnberg E. Magnetic material in head, thorax, and abdomen of Solenopsis substituta ants: a ferromagnetic resonance study. J Magn Reson 2005, 175:309-316.
2. Adair E.R. Thermophysiologic effects of electromagnetic radiation. Biological effects and medical applications of electromagnetic energy 1990, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ. O.P. Gandhi (Ed.).
3. Aldad T.S., Gan G., Gao X.B., Taylor H.S. Fetal radiofrequency radiation exposure from 800-1900 MHz-rated cellular telephones affects neurodevelopment and behavior in mice. Sci Rep 2012, 2:312.
4. Balmori A. Possible effects of electromagnetic fields from phone masts on a population of White stork (Ciconia ciconia). Electromagn Biol Med 2005, 24:109-119.
5. Balmori A. Electromagnetic pollution from phone masts. Effects on wildlife. Pathophysiology 2009, 16(2-3):191-199.
6. Balmori A. Mobile phone mast effects on common frog (Rana temporaria) tadpoles: the city turned into a laboratory. Electromagn Biol Med 2010, 29:31-35.
7. Balmori A., Hallberg Ö. The urban decline of the house sparrow (Passer domesticus): a possible link with electromagnetic radiation. Electromagn Biol Med 2007, 26:141-151.
8. Balodis V.G., Brumelis K., Kalviskis O., Nikodemus D., Tjarve V.Z. Does the Skrundra radio location station diminish the radial growth of pine trees?. Sci Total Environ 1996, 180:57-64.
9. Baranski S., Czerski P. Biological effects of microwaves 1976, Dowden, Hutchinson & Ross, Stroudsburg.
10. Bastide M., Youbicier-Simo B.J., Lebecq J.C., Giaimis J. Toxicological study of electromagnetic radiation emitted by television and video display screens and cellular telephones on chickens and mice. Indoor Built Environ 2001, 10:291-298.
11. Batellier F., Couty I., Picard D., Brillard J.P. Effects of exposing chicken eggs to a cell phone in 'call' position over the entire incubation period. Theriogenology 2008, 69:737-745.
12. Beers J. Biological effects of weak electromagnetic fields from 0 Hz to 200 MHz: a survey of the literature with special emphasis on possible magnetic resonance effects. Magn Reson Imaging 1989, 7:309-331.
13. Begon M., Townsend C.R., Harper J.L. Ecology: from individuals to ecosystems 2005, Wiley-Blackwell, Hoboken, New Jersey, USA. 4th ed.
14. Berman E., Kinn J.B., Carter H.B. Observations of mouse foetuses after irradiation with 2.45 GHz microwaves. Health Phys 1978, 35:791-801.
15. Berman E., Carter H.B., House D. Tests of mutagenesis and reproduction in male rats exposed to 2,450-MHz (CW) microwaves. Bioelectromagnetics 1980, 1:65-76.
16. Berman E., Weil C., Phillips P.A., Carter H.B., House D.E. Foetal and maternal effects of continual exposure of rats to 970-MHz circularly-polarized microwaves. Electro Magnetobiol 1992, 11(1):43-54.
17. Bornhausen M., Scheingraber H. Prenatal exposure to 900 MHz cell phone electromagnetic fields had no effect on operant-behaviour performances of adult rats. Bioelectromagnetics 2000, 21:566-574.
18. Bouji M., Lecomte A., Hode Y., de Seze R., Villegier A.S. Effects of 900 MHz radiofrequency on corticosterone, emotional memory and neuroinflammation in middle-aged rats. Exp Gerontol 2012, 47(6):444-451.
19. Bryan T.E., Gildersleeve R.P. Effects of nonionizing radiation on birds. Comp Biochem Physiol 1988, 89:511-530.
20. Byman D., Battista S.P., Wasserman F.E., Kunz T.H. Effect of microwave irradiation (2.45 GHz, CW) on egg weight loss, egg hatchability, and hatchling growth of the Coturnix quail. Bioelectromagnetics 1985, 6:271-282.
21. Cabe P.A., McRee D.I. Behavioral teratological effects of microwave radiation in Japanese quail (Coturnix coturnix japonica). An exploratory study. Neurobehav Toxicol 1980, 2:291-296.
22. Cammaerts M.C., De Doncker P., Patris X., Bellens F., Rachidi Z., Cammaerts D. GSM 900 MHz radiation inhibits ants' association between food sites and encountered cues. Electromagn Biol Med 2012, 31(2):151-165.
23. Carpenter R.L., Biddle D.K., Van Ummersen C.A. Biological effects of microwave radiation with particular reference to the eye. Proceedings of the Third International Conference on Medical Electronics 1960, 401-408. Medical Electronics, London.
24. Cassel J.C., Cosquer B., Galani R., Kuster N. Whole-body exposure to 2.45 GHz electromagnetic fields does not alter radial-maze performance in rats. Behav Brain Res 2004, 155:37-43.
25. Chen G., Lu D., Chiang H., Leszczynski D., Xu Z. Using model organism Saccharomyces cerevisiae to evaluate the effects of ELF-MF and RF-EMF exposure on global gene expression. Bioelectromagnetics 2012, 33(7):550-560.
26. Chernovetz M.E., Justesen D.R., King N.W., Wagner J.E. Teratology, survival, and reversal learning after foetal irradiation of mice by 2450-MHz microwave energy. J Microw Power 1975, 10(4):391-409.
27. Clarke RL,1978. Behavioral, ethological, and teratological effects of electromagnetic radiation on an avian species. Ph.D. dissertation Department of Psychology, University of Kansas.
28. Cobb B.L., Jauchem J.R., Adair E.R. Radial arm maze performance of rats following repeated low level microwave radiation exposure. Bioelectromagnetics 2004, 25:49-57.
29. Cosquer B., Galani R., Kuster N., Cassel J.C. Whole-body exposure to 2.45 GHz electromagnetic fields does not alter anxiety responses in rats: a plus-maze study including test validation. Behav Brain Res 2005, 156(1):65-74.
30. 3G Wireless Networks 2001, McGraw-Hill. D. Collins, C. Smith (Eds.).
31. Crutzen P.J., Stoermer E.F. The Anthropocene. Glob Change Newsl 2000, 41:17-18.
32. D'Andrea J.A., Cobb B.L., de Lorge J.O. Lack of behavioral effects in the rhesus monkey: high peak microwave pulses at 1.3 GHz. Bioelectromagnetics 1989, 10(1):65-76.
33. Daniells C., Duce I., Thomas D., Sewell P., Tattersall J., de Pomerai D.I. Transgenic nematodes as biomonitors of microwave-induced stress. Mutat Res 1998, 399(1):55-64.
34. Daniels W.M., Pitout I.L., Afullo T.J., Mabandla M.V. The effect of electromagnetic radiation in the mobile phone range on the behaviour of the rat. Metab Brain Dis 2009, 24(4):629-641.
35. Dasdag S., Akdag M.Z., Ulukaya E., Uzunlar A.K., Yegin D. Mobile phone exposure does not induce apoptosis on spermatogenesis in rats. Arch Med Res 2008, 39(1):40-44.
36. Davidson J.A., Kondra P.A., Hamid M.A.K. Effects of microwave radiation on eggs, embryos and chickens. Can J Anim Sci 1976, 56:709-713.
37. de Pomerai D.I., Dawe A., Djerbib L., Allan J., Brunt G., Daniells C. Growth and maturation of the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans following exposure to weak microwave fields. Enzyme Microb Technol 2002, 30(1):73-79.
38. Dulbinskaya D.A. Effect of constant magnetic field on growth of maize seedlings. Fiziol Rast 1973, 20(1):183-186.
39. Egger M., Davey-Smith G., Schneider M., Minder C. Bias in meta-analysis detected by a simple graphical test. BMJ 1997, 315:629-634.
40. EU The potential dangers of electromagnetic fields and their effect on the environment - report of the committee on the Environment, Agriculture and Local and Regional Affairs available online at, [last accessed 18 April 2012]. http://assembly.coe.int/documents/workingdocs/doc11/edoc12608.pdf.
41. EU Commission implantation Reports Report on the implementation of the Council Recommendation on the limitation of exposure of the general public to electromagnetic fields (0 Hz-300 GHz) available online at, [last accessed 18 April 2012]. http://ec.europa.eu/health/electromagnetic_fields/docs/bipro_staffpaper_en.pdf.
42. Everaert J., Bauwens D. A possible effect of electromagnetic radiation from mobile phone base stations on the number of breeding house sparrows (Passer domesticus). Electromagn Biol Med 2007, 26:63-72.
43. Favre D. Mobile phone-induced honeybee worker piping. Apidologie 2011, 42:270-279.
44. Fisher P.D., Lauber J.K., Voss W.A.G. The effect of low-level 2450-MHz CW microwave radiation and body temperature on early embryonic development in chickens. Radio Sci 1979, 14:159-163.
45. Foster K.R., Repacholi M.H. Biological effects of radiofrequency fields: does modulation matter?. Radiat Res 2004, 162:219-225.
46. Fragopoulou A.F., Miltiadous P., Stamatakis A., Stylianopoulou F., Koussoulakos S.L., Margaritis L.H. Whole body exposure with GSM 900 MHz affects spatial memory in mice. Pathophysiology 2010, 17:179-187.
47. Gallai N., Salles J.M., Settele J., Vaissieres B.E. Economic valuation of the vulnerability of world agriculture confronted with pollinator decline. Ecol Econ 2009, 68:810-821.
48. Gathiram P., Kistnasamy B., Lalloo U. Effects of a unique electromagnetic field system on the fertility of rats. Arch Environ Occup Health 2009, 64(2):93-100.
49. Giarola A.J., Krueger W.F. Continuous exposure of chicks and rats to electromagnetic fields. IEEE Trans Microwave Theory Tech 1974, 22:432-437.
50. Gildersleeve R.P., Galvin M.J., McRee D.I., Thaxton J.P., Parkhurst C.R. Reproduction of Japanese quail after microwave irradiation during embryogeny. Bioelectromagnetics 1987, 8:9-21.
51. Glaser P.E. Power from the sun: its future. Science 1968, 162:857-886.
52. Gos P., Eicher B., Kohli J., Heyer W.D. No mutagenic or recombinogenic effects of mobile phone fields at 900 MHz detected in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Bioelectromagnetics 2000, 21(7):515-523.
53. Grigoryev Y. Biological effects of mobile phone electromagnetic field on chick embryo (risk assessment using the mortality rate). Radiats Biol Radioecol 2003, 43:541-543.
54. Grospietsch T., Schulz O., Hoelzel R., Lamprecht I., Kramer K.D. Stimulating effects of modulated 150 MHz electromagnetic fields on the growth of Escherichia coli in a cavity resonator. Bioelectrochem Bioenerg 1995, 37(1):17-23.
55. Haider T., Knasmueller S., Kundi M., Haider M. Clastogenic effects of radiofrequency radiation on chromosomes of Tradescantia. Mutat Res 1994, 324:65-68.
56. Hamrick P.E., McRee D.I. Exposure of the Japanese quail embryo to 2.45 GHz microwave radiation during the second day of development. J Microw Power 1975, 10:211-221.
57. Hao D., Yang L., Chen S., Tong J., Tian Y., Su B., et al. Effects of long-term electromagnetic field exposure on spatial learning and memory in rats. Neurol Sci 2012, 1-8.
58. Harst W., Kuhn J., Stever H. Can electromagnetic exposure cause a change in behavior? Studying possible non thermal influences on honey bees - an approach within the framework of educational informatics. Acta Systematica - IIAS Int J 2006, 6:1-6.
59. Cochrane handbook for systematic reviews of intervention 2006, John Wiley & Sons, Chichester, UK. J.P.T. Higgins, S. Green (Eds.).
60. Hills G.A., Kondra P.A., Hamid M.A.K. Effects of microwave radiations on hatchability and growth in chickens and turkeys. Can J Anim Sci 1974, 54:573-578.
61. ICNIRP (International Commission on Non-ionising Radiation Protection) Statement-guidelines for limiting exposure to time-varying electric, magnetic, and electromagnetic fields (1 Hz-100 kHz). Health Phys 2010, 99:818-836.
62. ICNIRP (International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection) Guidelines for limiting exposure to time-varying electric, magnetic, and electromagnetic fields (up to 300GHz). Health Phys 1998, 74(4):494-522.
63. Imai N., Kawabe M., Hikage T., Nojima T., Takahashi S., Shirai T. Effects on rat testis of 1.95-GHz W-CDMA for IMT-2000 cellular phones. Syst Biol Reprod Med 2011, 57(4):204-209.
64. Inouye M., Galvin M.J., McRee D.I. Effects of 2.45 GHz microwave radiation on the development of Japanese quail cerebellum. Teratology 1982, 25:115-121.
65. Jensh R.P. Behavioral teratological studies using microwave radiation: is there an increased risk from exposure to cellular phones and microwave ovens?. Reprod Toxicol 1997, 11:601-611.
66. Jensh R.P., Weinberg I., Brent R.L. Teratologic studies of prenatal exposure of rats to 915-MHz microwave radiation. Radiat Res 1982, 92:160-171.
67. Jiang B., Nie J., Zhou Z., Zhang J., Tong J., Cao Y. Adaptive response in mice exposed to 900 MHz radiofrequency fields: primary DNA damage. PLoS One 2012, 7(2):e32040.
68. Jinapang P., Prakob P., Wongwattananard P., Islam N.E., Kirawanich P. Growth characteristics of mung beans and water convolvuluses exposed to 425-MHz electromagnetic fields. Bioelectromagnetics 2010, 31(7):519.
69. JRC WEB (Journal Citation Reports) Thomson Reuters available online at, [last accessed 14 April 2012]. http://thomsonreuters.com/products_services/science/science_products/a-z/journal_citation_reports/.
70. Juutilainen J. Developmental effects of electromagnetic fields. Bioelectromagnetics 2005, 7:107-115.
71. Keeton W.T. Magnets interfere with pigeon homing. Proc Natl Acad Sci 1971, 68:102-106.
72. Kesari K.K., Kumar S., Behari J. 900-MHz microwave radiation promotes oxidation in rat brain. Electromagn Biol Med 2011, 30(4):219-234.
73. Khillare B., Behari J. Effect of amplitude-modulated radiofrequency radiation on reproduction pattern in rats. Electro Magnetobiol 1998, 17(1):43-55.
74. Kimmel S., Kuhn J., Harst W., Stever H. Effects of electromagnetic exposition on the behavior of the honeybee (Apis mellifera). Environ Syst Res 2007, 8:1-6.
75. Kirschvink J.L., Walker M.M., Diebel C. Magnetite-based magnetoreception. Curr Opin Neurobiol 2001, 11:462-467.
76. Klein A.M., Vaissière B., Cane J.H., Steffan-Dewenter I., Cunningham S.A., Kremen C., et al. Importance of crop pollinators in changing landscapes for world crops. Proc R Soc Lond Ser 2007, 274:303-313.
77. Kleinhaus S., Pinshow B., Frumkin R. Thermal effects of short radio-waves on migrating birds. Ecol Appl 1995, 5:672-679.
78. Klug S., Hetscher M., Giles S., Kohlsman S., Kramer K. The lack of effects of nonthermal RF electromagnetic fields on the development of rat embryos grown in culture. Life Sci 1997, 61:1789-1802.
79. Knight K. Cockroaches use radical pair mechanism to detect magnetism. J Exp Biol 2009, [212:iii]. 10.1242/jeb.038935.
80. Kowalczuk C.I., Saunders R.D., Stapleton H.R. Sperm count and sperm abnormality in male mice after exposure to 2.45 GHz microwave radiation. Mutat Res Lett 1983, 122(2):155-161.
81. Krizaj D., Valencic V. The effect of ELF magnetic fields and temperature on differential plant growth. J Bioelec 1989, 8(2):159-165.
82. Krueger W.F., Giarola A.J., Bradley J.W., Shrekenhamer A. Effects of electromagnetic fields on fecundity in the chicken. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 1975, 247:391-400. New York Academy of Sciences, New York. P. Tyler (Ed.).
83. Kumar N.R., Sangwan S., Badotra P. Exposure to cell phone radiations produces biochemical changes in worker honey bees. Toxicol Int 2011, 18(1):70-72.
84. Kumlin T., Iivonen H., Miettenen P., Junoven A., van Groen T., Puranen L., et al. Mobile phone radiation and the developing brain: behavioral and morphological effects in juvenile rats. Radiat Res 2007, 168:471-479.
85. Kwak M.M., Velterop O., Van Andel J. Pollen and gene flow in a fragmented habitat. Appl Veg Sci 1998, 1:37-54.
86. Lai H., Horita A., Guy A.W. Microwave irradiation affects radial-arm maze performance in the rat. Bioelectromagnetics 1994, 15:95-104.
87. Lary J.M., Conover D.L., Johnson P.H. Absence of embryo-toxic effects from low-level (nonthermal) exposure of rats to 100 MHz radiofrequency radiation. Scand J Work Environ Health 1983, 9(2):120-127.
88. Lebovitz R.M., Johnson L., Samson W.K. Acute, whole-body microwave exposure and testicular function of rats. Bioelectromagnetics 1987, 8(1):37-43.
89. Lebovitz R.M., Johnson L., Samson W.K. Effects of pulse-modulated microwave radiation and conventional heating on sperm production. J Appl Physiol 1987, 62(1):245-252.
90. Lee H.J., Lee J.S., Pack J.K., Choi H.D., Kim N., Kim S.H., et al. Lack of teratogenicity after combined exposure of pregnant mice to CDMA and WCDMA radiofrequency electromagnetic fields. Radiat Res 2009, 172(5):648-652.
91. Lee H.J., Jin Y.B., Kim T.H., Pack J.K., Kim N., Choi H.D., et al. The effects of simultaneous combined exposure to CDMA and WCDMA electromagnetic fields on rat testicular function. Bioelectromagnetics 2012, 33(4):356-364.
92. Liedvogel M., Mouritsen H. Cryptochromes - a potential magnetoreceptor: what do we know and what do we want to know?. J R Soc Interface 2010, 7(2):147-162.
93. Magone I. The effect of electromagnetic radiation from the Skrunda Radio Location Station on Spirodela polyrhiza (L.) Schleiden cultures. Sci Total Environ 1996, 180:75-80.
94. Magras I.N., Xenos T.D. RF radiation-induced changes in the prenatal development of mice. Bioelectromagnetics 1997, 18:455-461.
95. Mailankot M., Kunnath A.P., Jayalekshmi H., Koduru B., Valsalan R. Radio frequency electromagnetic radiation (RF-EMR) from GSM (0.9/1.8GHz) mobile phones induces oxidative stress and reduces sperm motility in rats. Clinics 2009, 6(6):561-565.
96. Maskey D., Kim M., Aryal B., Pradhan J., Choi I.Y., Park K.S., et al. Effect of 835 MHz radiofrequency radiation exposure on calcium binding proteins in the hippocampus of the mouse brain. Brain Res 2010, 1313:232-241.
97. Mathur R. Effect of chronic intermittent exposure to AM radiofrequency field on responses to various types of noxious stimuli in growing rats. Electromagn Biol Med 2008, 27(3):266-276.
98. McRee D.I., Hamrick P.E. Exposure of Japanese quail embryos to 2.45 GHz microwave radiation during development. Radiat Res 1977, 71:355-366.
99. McRee D.I., Hamrick P.E., Zinki J., Thaxton P., Parkhurst C.R. Some effects of exposure of the Japanese quail embryo to 2.45 GHz microwave radiation. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1975, 247:377-390.
100. McRee D.I., Thaxton J.P., Parkhurst C.R. Reproduction in male Japanese quail exposed to microwave radiation during embryogeny. Radial. Res. 1983, 96:51-58.
101. Michaelson S.M. Biological effects of radiofrequency radiation: concepts and criteria. Health Phys 1991, 61(1):3-14.
102. Michaelson S.M., Dodge C.H. Soviet views on the biological effects of microwaves and analysis. Health Phys 1971, 21:108-111.
103. Morris R. Developments of a water-maze procedure for studying spatial learning in the rat. J Neurosci Methods 1984, 11(1):47-60.
104. Nawrot P.S., McRee D.I., Galvin M.J. Teratogenic, biochemical, and histological studies with mice prenatally exposed to 2.45-GHz microwave radiation. Radiat Res 1985, 102(1):35-45.
105. NCRP Biological Effects and Exposure Criteria for Radiofrequency Electromagnetic Fields 1986, National Council for Radiation Protection and Measurements, 400 pp.
106. Nicholls B., Racey P.A. The aversive effect of electromagnetic radiation on foraging bats: a possible means of discouraging bats from approaching wind turbines. PLoS One 2009, 4(7):e6246.
107. Nikolova T., Czyz J., Rolletschek A., Blyszczuk P., Fuchs J., Jovtchev G., et al. Electromagnetic fields affect transcript levels of apoptosis-related genes in embryonic stem cell-derived neural progenitor cells. FASEB J 2005, 19:1686-1688.
108. Nittby H., Grafström G., Tian D.P., Malmgren L., Brun A., Persson B.R.R., et al. Cognitive impairment in rats after long-term exposure to GSM-900 mobile phone radiation. Bioelectromagnetics 2008, 29:219-232.
109. Nittby H., Moghadam M.K., Sun W., Malmgren L., Eberhardt J., Persson B.R., et al. Analgetic effects of non-thermal GSM-1900 radiofrequency electromagnetic fields in the land snail Helix pomatia. Int J Radiat Biol 2012, 88(3):245-252.
110. Ozlem Nisbet O.H., Nisbet C., Akar A., Cevik M., Onder Karayigit M. Effects of exposure to electromagnetic field (1.8/0.9GHz) on testicular function and structure in growing rats. Res Vet Sci 2012, 93(2):1001-1005.
111. Panagopoulos D.J. Effect of microwave exposure on the ovarian development of Drosophila melanogaster. Cell Biochem Biophys 2012, 63(2):121-132.
112. Panagopoulos D.J., Margaritis L.H. The effect of exposure duration on the biological activity of mobile telephony radiation. Mutat Res 2010, 699(2):17-22.
113. Panagopoulos D.J., Karabarbounis A., Margaritis L.H. Effect of GSM 900 MHz mobile phone radiation on the reproductive capacity of Drosophila melanogaster. Electromagn Biol Med 2004, 23:29-43.
114. Panagopoulos D.J., Chavdoula E.D., Karabarbournis A., Margaritis L.H. Comparison of bioactivity between GSM 900 MHz and DCS 1800 MHz mobile telephony radiation. Electromagn Biol Med 2007, 26:33-44.
115. Panagopoulos D.J., Chavdoula E.D., Margaritis L.H. Bioeffects of mobile telephony radiation in relation to its intensity or distance from the antenna. Int J Radiat Biol 2010, 86(5):345-357.
116. Peters J.L., Sutton A.J., Jones D.R., Abrams K.R., Rushton L. Comparison of two methods to detect publication bias in meta-analysis. JAMA 2006, 295:676-680.
117. Peters J.L., Sutton A.J., Jones D.R., Abrams K.R., Rushton L. Contour-enhanced meta-analysis funnel plots help distinguish publication bias from other causes of asymmetry. J Clin Epidemiol 2008, 61:991-996.
118. Pittman U.J. Magnetism and plant growth. Effect on germination and early growth of corn and beans. Can J Plant Sci 1965, 45:549-555.
119. Poulletier de Gannes F., Haro E., Hurtier A., Taxile M., Athane A., Ait-Aissa S., et al. Effect of in utero Wi-Fi exposure on the pre- and postnatal development of rats. Res. B. Dev. Reprod. Toxicol. 2012, 95(2):130-136.
120. Pourlis A.F. Reproductive and developmental effects of EMF in vertebrate animal models. Pathophysiology 2009, 16:179-189.
121. Ratnieks F.L.W., Carreck N.L. Clarity on honey bee collapse?. Science 2010, 327:152-153.
122. Reijt L., Mazgajski T., Kubacki R., Kieliszek J., Sobiczewska E., Szmigielski S. Influence of radar radiation on breeding biology of tits (Parus sp). Electromagn Biol Med 2007, 26:235-238.
123. Repacholi M.H., Cardis E. Criteria for EMF health risk assessment. Radiat Prot Dosim 1997, 72:305-312.
124. Ribeiro E.P., Rhoden E.L., Horn M.M., Rhoden C., Lima L.P., Toniolo L. Effects of sub chronic exposure to radio frequency from a conventional cellular telephone on testicular function in adult rats. J Urol 2007, 177:395-399.
125. Ritz T., Dommer D.H., Phillips J.B. Shedding light on vertebrate magnetoreception. Neuron 2002, 34:503-506.
126. Roux D., Vian A., Girard S., Bonnet P., Paladian F., Davies E., et al. Electromagnetic fields (900 MHz) evoke consistent molecular responses in tomato plants. Physiol Plant 2006, 128:283-288.
127. -1) electromagnetic field: a genuine environmental stimulus that affects transcription, translation, calcium and energy charge in tomato. Planta 2007, 227:883-891.
128. Ružič R., Jerman I., Gogala N. Water stress reveals effects of ELF magnetic fields on the growth of seedlings. Electro Magnetobiol 1998, 17:17-30.
129. Sahib S.S. Impact of mobile phones on the density of honeybees. J Public Adm Policy Res 2011, 3(4):131.
130. Salama N., Kishimoto T., Kanayama H.O. Effects of exposure to a mobile phone on testicular function and structure in adult rabbit. Int J Androl 2010, 33(1):88-94.
131. Salama N., Kishimoto T., Kanayama H.O., Kagawa S. Effects of exposure to a mobile phone on sexual behavior in adult male rabbit: an observational study. Int J Impot Res 2010, 22(2):127-133.
132. Salford L.G., Brun A.E., Eberhardt J.L., Malmgren L., Persson B.R.R. Nerve cell damage in mammalian brain after exposure to microwaves from GSM mobile phones. Environ Health Perspect 2003, 7:881-883.
133. Sarookhani M.R., Asiabanha Rezaei M., Safari A., Zaroushani V., Ziaeiha M. The influence of 950 MHz magnetic field (mobile phone radiation) on sex organ and adrenal functions of male rabbits. Afr J Biochem Res 2011, 5(2):65-68.
134. Savostin P.W. Magnetic growth relations in plants. Planta 1930, 12:327.
135. SCENIHR (Scientific Committee on Emerging and Newly Identified Health Risks) Health effects of exposure to EMF European Commission Available online at, [last accessed: 18 April 2012]. http://ec.europa.eu/health/ph_risk/committees/04_scenihr/docs/scenihr_o_022.pdf.
136. Schacker M. A spring without bees: how colony collapse disorder has endangered our food supply 2008, Globe Pequot, Guilford.
137. Schmutz P., Siegenthaler J., Staeger C., Tarjan D., Bucher J.B. Long-term exposure of young spruce and beech trees to 2450-MHz microwave radiation. Sci Total Environ 1996, 180(1):43-48.
138. Schwartz J.L., Philogene B.J.R., Stewart J.G., Mealing G.A., Duval F.M. Chronic exposure of the tobacco hornworm to pulsed microwaves - effects of development. J Microw Power 1985, 20(3):85-93.
139. Selga T., Selga M. Response of Pinus sylvestris L. needles to electromagnetic fields. Cytological and ultra-structural aspects. Sci Total Environ 1996, 180:65-73.
140. Sharma V.P., Kumar N.R. Changes in honeybee behaviour and biology under the influence of cell phone radiations. Curr Sci 2010, 98:1376-1378.
141. Sharma V.P., Singh H.P., Kohli R.K., Batish D.R. Mobile phone radiation inhibits Vigna radiata (mung bean) root growth by inducing oxidative stress. Sci Total Environ 2009, 407(21):5543-5547.
142. Sherry C.J., Blick D.W., Walters T.J., Brown G.C., Murphy M.R. Lack of behavioral effects in non-human primates after exposure to ultra-wideband electromagnetic radiation in the microwave frequency range. Radiat Res 1995, 143(1):93-97.
143. Sienkiewicz Z.J., Blackwell R.P., Haylock R.G., Saunders R.D., Cobb B.L. Low-level exposure to pulsed 900 MHz microwave radiation does not cause deficits in the performance of a spatial learning task in mice. Bioelectromagnetics 2000, 21(3):151-158.
144. Soltani F., Kashi A., Arghavani M. Effect of magnetic field on Asparagus originalis L seed germinaton and seedling growth. Seed Sci Technol 2006, 34(2):349-353.
145. Sommer A.M., Grote K., Reinhardt T., Streckert J., Hansen V., Lerchl A. Effects of radiofrequency electromagnetic fields (UMTS) on reproduction and development of mice: a multi-generation study. Radiat Res 2009, 171(1):89-95.
146. Stam R. Electromagnetic fields and the blood-brain barrier. Brain Res Rev 2010, 65:80-97.
147. Tanner J.A. Effect of microwave on birds. Nature 1966, 210:636.
148. Tanner J.A., Romero-Sierra C. Beneficial and harmful accelerated growth induced by the action of nonionizing radiation. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1974, 238:171-175.
149. Thalau P., Ritz T., Stapput K., Wiltschko R., Wiltschko W. Magnetic compass orientation of migratory birds in the presence of a 1.315 MHz oscillating field. Naturwissenschaften 2005, 92:86-90.
150. Tkalec M., Malarić K., Pevalek-Kozlina B. Influence of 400, 900 and 1900 MHz electromagnetic fields on Lemna minor growth and peroxidase activity. Bioelectromagnetics 2005, 26:185-193.
151. Tkalec M., Malarik K., Pevalek-Kozlina B. Exposure to radiofrequency radiation induces oxidative stress in duckweed Lemna minor. Sci Total Environ 2007, 388:78-89.
152. Urech M., Eicher B., Siegenthaler J. Effects of microwave and radio frequency electromagnetic fields on lichens. Bioelectromagnetics 1996, 17:327-334.
153. Ursache M., Mindru G., Creangǎ D.E., Tufescu F.M., Goiceanu C. The effects of high frequency electromagnetic waves on the vegetal organisms. Rom J Physiol 2009, 54(1):133-145.
154. U.S.Department of Energy A Selective Review of the Literature on Biological Effects of Microwaves in Relation to the Satellite Power System (SPS) 1978, U.S. Department of Energy, USA, (Available online at: http://www.osti.gov/bridge/index.jsp, last accessed 12 July 2012).
155. Vacha M., Puzova T., Kvicalova M. Radio frequency magnetic fields disrupt magnetoreception in American cockroach. J Exp Biol 2009, 212(Pt 21):3473-3477.
156. Van Deventer E., van Rongen E., Saunders R. WHO research agenda for radiofrequency fields. Bioelectromagnetics 2011, 32:417-442.
157. Van Ummersen C.A. The effect of 2450 MHz radiation on the development of the chick embryo. Proceedings of the 4th tri-service conference biological effects of microwave radiation 1961, vol. 1:201-219. Plenum, N. Y.
158. Van Ummersen CA, 1963. An experimental study of developmental abnormalities induced in the chick embryo by exposure to radio frequency waves. Ph.D. Dissertation, Tufts University, Medford, UK.
159. Verschaeve L., Maes A. Genetic, carcinogenic and teratogenic effects of radiofrequency fields. Mutat Res 1998, 410:141-165.
160. Vrhovac R., Hrascan J., Franekic A. Effect of 905 MHz microwave radiation on colony growth of the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae strains FF18733, FF1481 and D7. Radiol Oncol 2010, 44:131-134.
161. Wajnberg E., Acosta-Avalos D., Alves O.C., de Oliveira J.F., Srygley R.B., Esquivel D.M. Magnetoreception in eusocial insects: an update. J R Soc Interface 2010, 7:S207-S225.
162. Wasserman F.E., Dowd C., Schlinger B., Kunz T., Battista S. The effects of microwave radiation on avian dominance behaviour. Bioelectromagnetics 1984, 5:331-339.
163. Weisbrot D., Lin H., Ye L., Blank M., Goodman R. Effects of mobile phone radiation on reproduction and development in Drosophila melanogaster. J Cell Biochem 2003, 89:48-55.
164. Westerdahl B.B., Gary N.E. Longevity and food consumption of microwave-treated (2.45 GHz CW) honeybees in the laboratory. Bioelectromagnetics 1981, 2(4):305-314.
165. Westerdahl B.B., Gary N.E. Flight, orientation, and homing abilities of honeybees following exposure to 2.45-GHz CW microwaves. Bioelectromagnetics 1981, 2:71-75.
166. WHO Research agenda for radio frequency fields. Geneva Switzerland: WHO International EMF Project Available online at, [last accessed 13 December 2011]. http://www.who.int.ezproxy.leidenuniv.nl:2048/peh-emf/research/rf_research_agenda_2006.pdf.
167. WHO Research agenda for radiofrequency fields Available online at, [last accessed: 18 April 2012]. http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2010/9789241599948_eng.pdf.
168. Wiltschko W., Wiltschko R. Magnetic orientation in birds. J Exp Biol 1996, 199:29-38.
169. Wiltschko R., Denzau S., Gehring D., Thalau P., Wiltschko W. Magnetic orientation of migratory robins, Erithacus rubecula, under long-wavelength light. J Exp Biol 2001, 214:3096-3101.
170. Winklhofer M. Magnetoreception. J R Soc Interface 2010, 7:131-134.
171. Yamaguchi H., Tsurita G., Ueno S., Watanabe S., Wake K., Taki M., et al. 1439 MHz pulsed TDMA fields affect performance of rats in a T-maze task only when body temperature is elevated. Bioelectromagnetics 2003, 24(4):223-230.
172. Yan J.G., Agresti M., Bruce T., Yan Y.H., Granlund A., Matloub H.S. Effects of cellular phone emissions on sperm motility in rats. Fertil Steril 2007, 88:957-964.
173. Yang X.S., He G.L., Hao Y.T., Xiao Y., Chen C.H., Zhang G.B., et al. Exposure to 2.45 GHz electromagnetic fields elicits an HSP-related stress response in rat hippocampus. Brain Res Bull 2012, 88(4):371-378.
174. Zalasiewicz J., Williams M., Steffen W., Crutzen P. The new world of the Anthropocene. Environ Sci Technol 2010, 44(7):2228-2231.
175. Zhao R., Zhang S., Xu Z., Ju L., Lu D., Yao G. Studying gene expression profile of rat neuron exposed to 1800 MHz radiofrequency electromagnetic fields with cDNA microassay. Toxicology 2007, 235:167-175.