Brain metastases from gastrointestinal tumours: Tailoring the approach to maximize the outcome

Critical Reviews in Oncology/Hematology

Volumn 85, Issue 1, 2013, Pages 32-44

  Menis, Jessica ^a   Fontanella, Caterina ^a   Follador, Alessandro ^a   Fasola, Gianpiero ^a   Aprile, Giuseppe ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY HOSPITAL OF UDINE   (Italy)

Author keywords

Brain metastases; Gastrointestinal tumours; Treatment

Indexed keywords

ANTICONVULSIVE AGENT; BEVACIZUMAB; CAPECITABINE; CETUXIMAB; CORTICOSTEROID; DEXAMETHASONE; FOTEMUSTINE; LAPATINIB; MANNITOL; PANITUMUMAB; PLACEBO; TEMOZOLOMIDE; TRASTUZUMAB; VALPROIC ACID;

BRAIN METASTASIS; CANCER CHEMOTHERAPY; CANCER PALLIATIVE THERAPY; CANCER RADIOTHERAPY; CANCER SURVIVAL; COLORECTAL CANCER; DRUG MECHANISM; DRUG POTENTIATION; ESOPHAGUS CANCER; GASTROINTESTINAL TUMOR; HEPATOBILIARY SYSTEM CANCER; HUMAN; NEUROSURGERY; OUTCOME ASSESSMENT; PANCREAS CANCER; PROGNOSIS; REVIEW; SEIZURE; STEREOTACTIC RADIOSURGERY; TRANSLATIONAL RESEARCH;

BRAIN NEOPLASMS; COMBINED MODALITY THERAPY; GASTROINTESTINAL NEOPLASMS; HUMANS; TREATMENT OUTCOME;

EID: 84870778311     PISSN: 10408428     EISSN: 18790461     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.critrevonc.2012.04.001     Document Type: Review

References (127)

1. Mintz A., Perry J., Spithoff K., Chambers A., Laperriere N. Management of single brain metastasis: a practice guideline. Current Oncology 2007, 14(August (4)):131-143.
2. Bos P.D., Zhang X.H., Nadal C., et al. Genes that mediate breast cancer metastasis to the brain. Nature 2009, 459(June (7249)):1005-1009.
3. Hasegawa T., Kondziolka D., Flickinger J.C., Lunsford L.D. Stereotactic radiosurgery for brain metastases from gastrointestinal tract cancer. Surgical Neurology 2003, 60(December (6)):506-514.
4. Zhang X., Zhang W., Cao W.D., Cheng G., Liu B., Cheng J. A review of current management of brain metastases. Annals of Surgical Oncology 2011, August 23 [epub ahead of print].
5. Weinberg J.S., Suki D., Hanbali F., Cohen Z.R., Lenzi R., Sawaya R. Metastasis of esophageal carcinoma to the brain. Cancer 2003, 98(November (9)):1925-1933.
6. Ogawa K., Toita T., Sueyama H., et al. Brain metastases from esophageal carcinoma: natural history, prognostic factors, and outcome. Cancer 2002, 94(February (3)):759-764.
7. Yoshida S. Brain metastasis in patients with esophageal carcinoma. Surgical Neurology 2007, 67(March (3)):288-290.
8. Kawabata R., Doki Y., Ishikawa O., et al. Frequent brain metastasis after chemotherapy and surgery for advanced esophageal cancers. Hepato-Gastroenterology 2007, 54(June (76)):1043-1048.
9. Smith R.S., Miller R.C. Incidence of brain metastasis in patients with esophageal carcinoma. World Journal of Gastroenterology 2011, 17(May (19)):2407-2410.
10. Rice T.W., Khuntia D., Rybicki L.A., et al. Brain metastases from esophageal cancer: a phenomenon of adjuvant therapy?. Annals of Thoracic Surgery 2006, 82:2042-2049. 2049.e1-e2.
11. Wayman J., Bennett M.K., Raimes S.A., Griffin S.M. The pattern of recurrence of adenocarcinoma of the oesophago-gastric junction. British Journal of Cancer 2002, 86(April (8)):1223-1229.
12. York J.E., Stringer J., Ajani J.A., Wildrick D.M., Gokaslan Z.L. Gastric cancer and metastasis to the brain. Annals of Surgical Oncology 1999, 6(December (8)):771-776.
13. Agrawal R., Shukla P., Shukla V., Chauhan A. Brain metastasis from esophageal carcinoma. Journal of Cancer Research and Therapeutics 2009, 5(April-June (2)):137-139.
14. Gabrielsen T.O., Eldevik O.P., Orringer M.B., Marshall B.L. Esophageal carcinoma metastatic to the brain: clinical value and cost-effectiveness of routine enhanced head CT before esophagectomy. American Journal of Neuroradiology 1995, 16(October (9)):1915-1921.
15. Hammoud M.A., McCutcheon I.E., Elsouki R., Schoppa D., Patt Y.Z. Colorectal carcinoma and brain metastasis: distribution, treatment, and survival. Annals of Surgical Oncology 1996, 3(September (5)):453-463.
16. Ko F.C., Liu J.M., Chen W.S., Chiang J.K., Lin T.C., Lin J.K. Risk and patterns of brain metastases in colorectal cancer: 27-year experience. Diseases of the Colon and Rectum 1999, 42(November (11)):1467-1471.
17. Tan W.S., Ho K.S., Eu K.W. Brain metastases in colorectal cancers. World Journal of Surgery 2009, 33(April (4)):817-821.
18. Mongan J.P., Fadul C.E., Cole B.F., et al. Brain metastases from colorectal cancer: risk factors, incidence, and the possible role of chemokines. Clinical Colorectal Cancer 2009, 8(March (2)):100-105.
19. Wroński M., Arbit E. Resection of brain metastases from colorectal carcinoma in 73 patients. Cancer 1999, 85(April (8)):1677-1685.
20. D'Andrea G., Roperto R., Dinia L., Caroli E., Salvati M., Ferrante L. Solitary cerebral metastases from ovarian epithelial carcinoma: 11 cases. Neurosurgical Review 2005, 28(April (2)):120-123.
21. Nieder C., Pawinski A., Balteskard L. Colorectal cancer metastatic to the brain: time trends in presentation and outcome. Oncology 2009, 76(5):369-374.
22. Baek J.Y., Kang M.H., Hong Y.S., et al. Characteristics and prognosis of patients with colorectal cancer-associated brain metastases in the era of modern systemic chemotherapy. Journal of Neuro-Oncology 2011, 104(September (3)):745-753.
23. Schouten L.J., Rutten J., Huveneers H.A., Twijnstra A. Incidence of brain metastases in a cohort of patients with carcinoma of the breast, colon, kidney, and lung and melanoma. Cancer 2002, 94(May (10)):2698-2705.
24. Kopetz S., Chang G.J., Overman M.J., et al. Improved survival in metastatic colorectal cancer is associated with adoption of hepatic resection and improved chemotherapy. Journal of Clinical Oncology 2009, 27(August (22)):3677-3683.
25. Rees M., Tekkis P.P., Welsh F.K., O'Rourke T., John T.G. Evaluation of long-term survival after hepatic resection for metastatic colorectal cancer: a multifactorial model of 929 patients. Annals of Surgery 2008, 247(January (1)):125-135.
26. Riquet M., Foucault C., Cazes A., et al. Pulmonary resection for metastases of colorectal adenocarcinoma. Annals of Thoracic Surgery 2010, 89(February (2)):375-380.
27. Byrne B., Geddes T., Welsh F., John T., Chandrakumaran K., Rees M. The incidence and outcome of brain metastases after liver resection for colorectal cancer metastases. Colorectal Disease 2011, August 11 [epub ahead of print]. 10.1111/j.1463-1318.2011.02762.x.
28. Aprile G., Zanon E., Tuniz F., et al. Neurosurgical management and postoperative whole-brain radiotherapy for colorectal cancer patients with symptomatic brain metastases. Journal of Cancer Research and Clinical Oncology 2009, 135(March (3)):451-457.
29. Farnell G.F., Buckner J.C., Cascino T.L., O'Connell M.J., Schomberg P.J., Suman V. Brain metastases from colorectal carcinoma. The long term survivors. Cancer 1996, 78(August (4)):711-716.
30. Kemp C. Metastatic spread and common symptoms. Part six: advanced cancer of the pancreas, prostate, stomach, and uterus. American Journal of Hospice and Palliative Care 1999, 16(September-October (5)):673-681.
31. Park K.S., Kim M., Park S.H., Lee K.W. Nervous system involvement by pancreatic cancer. Journal of Neuro-Oncology 2003, 63(July (3)):313-316.
32. Conroy T., Desseigne F., Ychou M., et al. FOLFIRINOX versus gemcitabine for metastatic pancreatic cancer. New England Journal of Medicine 2011, 364(May (19)):1817-1825.
33. Chang L., Chen Y.L., Kao M.C. Intracranial metastasis of hepatocellular carcinoma: review of 45 cases. Surgical Neurology 2004, 62(August (2)):172-177.
34. Kim M., Na D.L., Park S.H., Jeon B.S., Roh J.K. Nervous system involvement by metastatic hepatocellular carcinoma. Journal of Neuro-Oncology 1998, 36(January (1)):85-90.
35. Natsuizaka M., Omura T., Akaike T., et al. Clinical features of hepatocellular carcinoma with extrahepatic metastases. Journal of Gastroenterology and Hepatology 2005, 20(November (11)):1781-1787.
36. Chen S.F., Tsai N.W., Lui C.C., et al. Hepatocellular carcinoma presenting as nervous system involvement. European Journal of Neurology 2007, 14(April (4)):408-412.
37. Choi H.J., Cho B.C., Sohn J.H., et al. Brain metastases from hepatocellular carcinoma: prognostic factors and outcome: brain metastasis from HCC. Journal of Neuro-Oncology 2009, 91(February (3)):307-313.
38. Hsieh M.J., Lu C.H., Tsai N.W., et al. Prediction, clinical characteristics and prognosis of intracerebral hemorrhage in hepatocellular carcinoma patients with intracerebral metastasis. Journal of Clinical Neuroscience 2009, 16(March (3)):394-398.
39. Han J.H., Kim D.G., Park J.C., Chung H.T., Paek S.H., Chung Y.S. Little response of cerebral metastasis from hepatocellular carcinoma to any treatments. Journal of Korean Neurosurgical Society 2010, 47(May (5)):325-331.
40. Llovet J.M., Ricci S., Mazzaferro V., et al. Sorafenib in advanced hepatocellular carcinoma. New England Journal of Medicine 2008, 359(July (4)):378-390.
41. Sons H.U., Borchard F., Joel B.S. Carcinoma of the gallbladder: autopsy findings in 287 cases and review of the literature. Journal of Surgical Oncology 1985, 28(March (3)):199-206.
42. Takano S., Yoshii Y., Owada T., Shirai S., Nose T. Central nervous system metastasis from gallbladder carcinoma--case report. Neurologia Medico-Chirurgica 1991, 31(December (12)):782-786.
43. Agrawal A., Agrawal C.S., Kumar A., Tiwari A., Lakshmi R., Yadav R. Gall bladder carcinoma: stroke as first manifestation. Indian Journal of Gastroenterology 2006, 25(November-December (6)):316.
44. Lien K., Zeng L., Nguyen J., et al. FACT-Br for assessment of quality of life in patients receiving treatment for brain metastases: a literature review. Expert Review of Pharmacoeconomics & Outcomes Research 2011, 11(December (6)):701-708.
45. Al-Shamy G., Sawaya R. Management of brain metastases: the indispensable role of surgery. Journal of Neuro-Oncology 2009, 92(May (3)):275-282.
46. Siu T.L., Jeffree R.L., Fuller J.W. Current strategies in the surgical management of cerebral metastases: an evidence-based review. Journal of Clinical Neuroscience 2011, 18(November (11)):1429-1434.
47. Patchell R.A., Tibbs P.A., Walsh J.W., et al. A randomized trial of surgery in the treatment of single metastases to the brain. New England Journal of Medicine 1990, 322(February (8)):494-500.
48. Vecht C.J., Haaxma-Reiche H., Noordijk E.M., et al. Treatment of single brain metastasis: radiotherapy alone or combined with neurosurgery?. Annals of Neurology 1993, 33(June (6)):583-590.
49. Hart M.G., Grant R., Walker M., Dickinson H. Surgical resection and whole brain radiation therapy versus whole brain radiation therapy alone for single brain metastases. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2005, (January (1)):CD003292.
50. Kalkanis S.N., Kondziolka D., Gaspar L.E., et al. The role of surgical resection in the management of newly diagnosed brain metastases: a systematic review and evidence-based clinical practice guideline. Journal of Neuro-Oncology 2010, 96(January (1)):33-43.
51. Mut M. Surgical treatment of brain metastasis: a review. Clinical Neurology and Neurosurgery 2012, 114(January (1)):1-8.
52. Sawaya R., Hammoud M., Schoppa D., et al. Neurosurgical outcomes in a modern series of 400 craniotomies for treatment of parenchymal tumors. Neurosurgery 1998, 42(May (5)):1044-1055. discussion 1055-6.
53. Paek S.H., Audu P.B., Sperling M.R., Cho J., Andrews D.W. Reevaluation of surgery for the treatment of brain metastases: review of 208 patients with single or multiple brain metastases treated at one institution with modern neurosurgical techniques. Neurosurgery 2005, 56(May (5)):1021-1034. discussion 1021-34.
54. D'Angelo C., Mirijello A., Leggio L., et al. State and trait anxiety and depression in patients with primary brain tumors before and after surgery: 1-year longitudinal study. Journal of Neurosurgery 2008, 108(2):281-286.
55. Suh J.H. Stereotactic radiosurgery for the management of brain metastases. New England Journal of Medicine 2010, 362(March (12)):1119-1127.
56. Da Silva A.N., Nagayama K., Schlesinger D.J., Sheehan J.P. Gamma Knife surgery for brain metastases from gastrointestinal cancer. Journal of Neurosurgery 2009, 111(September (3)):423-430.
57. Muacevic A., Kreth F.W., Horstmann G.A., et al. Surgery and radiotherapy compared with gamma knife radiosurgery in the treatment of solitary cerebral metastases of small diameter. Journal of Neurosurgery 1999, 91(July (1)):35-43.
58. Rades D., Pluemer A., Veninga T., Hanssens P., Dunst J., Schild S.E. Whole-brain radiotherapy versus stereotactic radiosurgery for patients in recursive partitioning analysis classes 1 and 2 with 1 to 3 brain metastases. Cancer 2007, 110(November (10)):2285-2292.
59. Muacevic A., Wowra B., Siefert A., Tonn J.C., Steiger H.J., Kreth F.W. Microsurgery plus whole brain irradiation versus Gamma Knife surgery alone for treatment of single metastases to the brain: a randomized controlled multicentre phase III trial. Journal of Neuro-Oncology 2008, 87(May (3)):299-307.
60. Karlsson B., Hanssens P., Wolff R., Söderman M., Lindquist C., Beute G. Thirty years' experience with Gamma Knife surgery for metastases to the brain. Journal of Neurosurgery 2009, 111(September (3)):449-457.
61. Garell P.C., Hitchon W.P., Wen B.C., Mellenberg D.E., Torner J. Stereotactic radiosurgery versus microsurgical resection for the initial treatment of metastatic cancer to the brain. Journal of Radiosurgery 1999, 2:1-5.
62. Schöggl A., Kitz K., Reddy M., et al. Defining the role of stereotactic radiosurgery versus microsurgery in the treatment of single brain metastases. Acta Neurochirurgica 2000, 142(6):621-626.
63. Bindal A.K., Bindal R.K., Hess K.R., et al. Surgery versus radiosurgery in the treatment of brain metastasis. Journal of Neurosurgery 1996, 84(May (5)):748-754.
64. O'Neill B.P., Iturria N.J., Link M.J., Pollock B.E., Ballman K.V., O'Fallon J.R. A comparison of surgical resection and stereotactic radiosurgery in the treatment of solitary brain metastases. International Journal of Radiation Oncology, Biology, Physics 2003, 55(April (5)):1169-1176.
65. http://www.clinicaltrial.gov/.
66. Kondziolka D., Patel A., Lunsford L.D., Kassam A., Flickinger J.C. Stereotactic radiosurgery plus whole brain radiotherapy versus radiotherapy alone for patients with multiple brain metastases. International Journal of Radiation Oncology, Biology, Physics 1999, 45(September (2)):427-434.
67. Andrews D.W., Scott C.B., Sperduto P.W., et al. Whole brain radiation therapy with or without stereotactic radiosurgery boost for patients with one to three brain metastases: phase III results of the RTOG 9508 randomised trial. Lancet 2004, 363(May (9422)):1665-1672.
68. Nam T.K., Lee J.I., Jung Y.J., et al. Gamma knife surgery for brain metastases in patients harboring four or more lesions: survival and prognostic factors. Journal of Neurosurgery 2005, (January (102 Suppl.)):147-150.
69. Woo H.J., Hwang S.K., Park S.H., Hwang J.H., Hamm I.S. Factors related to the local treatment failure of γ knife surgery for metastatic brain tumors. Acta Neurochirurgica 2010, 152(November (11)):1909-1914.
70. Vogelbaum M.A., Asher A.L., Kondziolka D., et al. Modern treatment of cerebral metastases: integrated Medical Learning (SM) at CNS 2007. Journal of Neuro-Oncology 2009, 93(May (1)):89-105.
71. Li J., Bentzen S.M., Li J., Renschler M., Mehta M.P. Relationship between neurocognitive function and quality of life after whole-brain radiotherapy in patients with brain metastasis. International Journal of Radiation Oncology, Biology, Physics 2008, 71(May (1)):64-70.
72. Tsao M.N., Lloyd N.S., Wong R.K. Clinical practice guideline on the optimal radiotherapeutic management of brain metastases. BMC Cancer 2005, 5(April):34.
73. Chang E.L., Wefel J.S., Hess K.R., et al. Neurocognition in patients with brain metastases treated with radiosurgery or radiosurgery plus whole-brain irradiation: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet Oncology 2009, 10(November (11)):1037-1044.
74. Viani G.A., Manta G.B., Fonseca E.C., De Fendi L.I., Afonso S.L., Stefano E.J. Whole brain radiotherapy with radiosensitizer for brain metastases. Journal of Experimental and Clinical Cancer Research 2009, 28(January):1.
75. Mintz A.H., Kestle J., Rathbone M.P., et al. A randomized trial to assess the efficacy of surgery in addition to radiotherapy in patients with a single cerebral metastasis. Cancer 1996, 78(October (7)):1470-1476.
76. Kaal E.C., Niël C.G., Vecht C.J. Therapeutic management of brain metastasis. Lancet Neurology 2005, 4(May (5)):289-298.
77. Kocher M., Soffietti R., Abacioglu U., et al. Adjuvant whole-brain radiotherapy versus observation after radiosurgery or surgical resection of one to three cerebral metastases: results of the EORTC 22952-26001 study. Journal of Clinical Oncology 2011, 29(January (2)):134-141.
78. Chitapanarux I., Goss B., Vongtama R., et al. Prospective study of stereotactic radiosurgery without whole brain radiotherapy in patients with four or less brain metastases: incidence of intracranial progression and salvage radiotherapy. Journal of Neuro-Oncology 2003, 61(January (2)):143-149.
79. Chidel M.A., Suh J.H., Reddy C.A., Chao S.T., Lundbeck M.F., Barnett G.H. Application of recursive partitioning analysis and evaluation of the use of whole brain radiation among patients treated with stereotactic radiosurgery for newly diagnosed brain metastases. International Journal of Radiation Oncology, Biology, Physics 2000, 47(July (4)):993-999.
80. Sneed P.K., Suh J.H., Goetsch S.J., et al. A multi-institutional review of radiosurgery alone vs. radiosurgery with whole brain radiotherapy as the initial management of brain metastases. International Journal of Radiation Oncology, Biology, Physics 2002, 53(July (3)):519-526.
81. Guerrieri M., Wong K., Ryan G., Millward M., Quong G., Ball D.L. A randomised phase III study of palliative radiation with concomitant carboplatin for brain metastases from non-small cell carcinoma of the lung. Lung Cancer 2004, 46(October (1)):107-111.
82. Verger E., Gil M., Yaya R., et al. Temozolomide and concomitant whole brain radiotherapy in patients with brain metastases: a phase II randomized trial. International Journal of Radiation Oncology, Biology, Physics 2005, 61(January (1)):185-191.
83. Mornex F., Thomas L., Mohr P., et al. A prospective randomized multicentre phase III trial of fotemustine plus whole brain irradiation versus fotemustine alone in cerebral metastases of malignant melanoma. Melanoma Research 2003, 13(February (1)):97-103.
84. Moscetti L., Nelli F., Felici A., et al. Up-front chemotherapy and radiation treatment in newly diagnosed nonsmall cell lung cancer with brain metastases: survey by Outcome Research Network for Evaluation of Treatment Results in Oncology. Cancer 2007, 109(January (2)):274-281.
85. Robinet G., Thomas P., Breton J.L., et al. Results of a phase III study of early versus delayed whole brain radiotherapy with concurrent cisplatin and vinorelbine combination in inoperable brain metastasis of non-small-cell lung cancer: Groupe Français de Pneumo-Cancérologie (GFPC) Protocol 95-1. Annals of Oncology 2001, 12(January (1)):59-67.
86. Lee D.H., Han J.Y., Kim H.T., et al. Primary chemotherapy for newly diagnosed nonsmall cell lung cancer patients with synchronous brain metastases compared with whole-brain radiotherapy administered first: result of a randomized pilot study. Cancer 2008, 113(July (1)):143-149.
87. Lockman P.R., Mittapalli R.K., Taskar K.S., et al. Heterogeneous blood-tumor barrier permeability determines drug efficacy in experimental brain metastases of breast cancer. Clinical Cancer Research 2010, 16(December (23)):5664-5678.
88. Gerstner E.R., Fine R.L. Increased permeability of the blood-brain barrier to chemotherapy in metastatic brain tumors: establishing a treatment paradigm. Journal of Clinical Oncology 2007, 25(June (16)):2306-2312.
89. Christodoulou C., Bafaloukos D., Linardou H., et al. Temozolomide (TMZ) combined with cisplatin (CDDP) in patients with brain metastases from solid tumors: a Hellenic Cooperative Oncology Group (HeCOG) Phase II study. Journal of Neuro-Oncology 2005, 71(January (1)):61-65.
90. Olson J.J., Paleologos N.A., Gaspar L.E., et al. The role of emerging and investigational therapies for metastatic brain tumors: a systematic review and evidence-based clinical practice guideline of selected topics. Journal of Neuro-Oncology 2010, 96(January (1)):115-142.
91. Hurwitz H., Fehrenbacher L., Novotny W., et al. Bevacizumab plus irinotecan, fluorouracil, and leucovorin for metastatic colorectal cancer. New England Journal of Medicine 2004, 350(June (23)):2335-2342.
92. Saltz L.B., Clarke S., Díaz-Rubio E., et al. Bevacizumab in combination with oxaliplatin-based chemotherapy as first-line therapy in metastatic colorectal cancer: a randomized phase III study. Journal of Clinical Oncology 2008, 26(April (12)):2013-2019. Erratum in: Journal of Clinical Oncology 2008;26(June (18)):3110. Journal of Clinical Oncology 2009;27(February (4)):653.
93. Ohtsu A., Shah M.A., Van Cutsem E., et al. Bevacizumab in combination with chemotherapy as first-line therapy in advanced gastric cancer: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled phase III study. Journal of Clinical Oncology 2011, 29(October (30)):3968-3976.
94. Yano S., Shinohara H., Herbst R.S., et al. Expression of vascular endothelial growth factor is necessary but not sufficient for production and growth of brain metastasis. Cancer Research 2000, 60(September (17)):4959-4967.
95. Gordon M.S., Margolin K., Talpaz M., et al. Phase I safety and pharmacokinetic study of recombinant human anti-vascular endothelial growth factor in patients with advanced cancer. Journal of Clinical Oncology 2001, 19(February (3)):843-850.
96. Besse B., Lasserre S.F., Compton P., Huang J., Augustus S., Rohr U.P. Bevacizumab safety in patients with central nervous system metastases. Clinical Cancer Research 2010, 16(January (1)):269-278.
97. Lin A.Y., Buckley N.S., Lu A.T., Kouzminova N.B., Salpeter S.R. Effect of KRAS mutational status in advanced colorectal cancer on the outcomes of anti-epidermal growth factor receptor monoclonal antibody therapy: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Clinical Colorectal Cancer 2011, 10(March (1)):63-69.
98. Van Cutsem E., Köhne C.H., Hitre E., et al. Cetuximab and chemotherapy as initial treatment for metastatic colorectal cancer. New England Journal of Medicine 2009, 360(April (14)):1408-1417.
99. Douillard J.Y., Siena S., Cassidy J., et al. Randomized, phase III trial of panitumumab with infusional fluorouracil, leucovorin, and oxaliplatin (FOLFOX4) versus FOLFOX4 alone as first-line treatment in patients with previously untreated metastatic colorectal cancer: the PRIME study. Journal of Clinical Oncology 2010, 28(November (31)):4697-4705.
100. Rades D., Nadrowitz R., Buchmann I., et al. Radiolabeled cetuximab plus whole-brain irradiation (WBI) for the treatment of brain metastases from non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). Strahlentherapie und Onkologie 2010, 186(August (8)):458-462.
101. Learn P.A., Krishnegowda N., Talamantez J., Kahlenberg M.S. Compensatory increases in Her-2/neu activation in response to EGFR tyrosine kinase inhibition in colon cancer cell lines. Journal of Surgical Research 2006, 136(December (2)):227-231.
102. Bang Y.J., Van Cutsem E., Feyereislova A., et al. Trastuzumab in combination with chemotherapy versus chemotherapy alone for treatment of HER2-positive advanced gastric or gastro-oesophageal junction cancer (ToGA): a phase 3, open-label, randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2010, 376(August (9742)):687-697.
103. Park Y.H., Park M.J., Ji S.H., et al. Trastuzumab treatment improves brain metastasis outcomes through control and durable prolongation of systemic extracranial disease in HER2-overexpressing breast cancer patients. British Journal of Cancer 2009, 100(March (6)):894-900.
104. Metro G., Fabi A. New target therapies for brain metastases from breast cancer. Current Cancer Drug Targets 2012, January 24 [epub ahead of print].
105. Zhou Y., Li S., Hu Y.P., et al. Blockade of EGFR and ErbB2 by the novel dual EGFR and ErbB2 tyrosine kinase inhibitor GW572016 sensitizes human colon carcinoma GEO cells to apoptosis. Cancer Research 2006, 66(January (1)):404-411.
106. Taskar K.S., Rudraraju V., Mittapalli R.K., et al. Lapatinib distribution in HER2 overexpressing experimental brain metastases of breast cancer. Pharmaceutical Research 2011, October 20 [epub ahead of print].
107. Capri G., Chang J., Chen S.C., et al. An open-label expanded access study of lapatinib and capecitabine in patients with HER2-overexpressing locally advanced or metastatic breast cancer. Annals of Oncology 2010, 21(March (3)):474-480.
108. Lin N.U., Diéras V., Paul D., et al. Multicenter phase II study of lapatinib in patients with brain metastases from HER2-positive breast cancer. Clinical Cancer Research 2009, 15(February (4)):1452-1459.
109. Chumas P., Condon B., Oluoch-Olunya D., Griffiths S., Hadley D., Teasdale G. Early changes in peritumorous oedema and contralateral white matter after dexamethasone: a study using proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry 1997, 62(June (6)):590-595.
110. French L.A. The use of steroids in the treatment of cerebral edema. Bulletin of the New York Academy of Medicine 1966, 42(April (4)):301-311.
111. Cantore G., Guidetti B., Virno M. Oral glycerol for the reduction of intracranial pressure. Journal of Neurosurgery 1964, 21(April):278-283.
112. Roberts P.A., Pollay M., Engles C., Pendleton B., Reynolds E., Stevens F.A. Effect on intracranial pressure of furosemide combined with varying doses and administration rates of mannitol. Journal of Neurosurgery 1987, 66(March (3)):440-446.
113. Sorani M.D., Manley G.T. Dose-response relationship of mannitol and intracranial pressure: a metaanalysis. Journal of Neurosurgery 2008, 108(January (1)):80-87.
114. Glantz M.J., Cole B.F., Friedberg M.H., et al. A randomized, blinded, placebo-controlled trial of divalproex sodium prophylaxis in adults with newly diagnosed brain tumors. Neurology 1996, 46(April (4)):985-991.
115. Vecht C.J., Wagner G.L., Wilms E.B. Interactions between antiepileptic and chemotherapeutic drugs. Lancet Neurology 2003, 2(July (7)):404-409.
116. Nieder C., Astner S.T., Andratschke N.H., Marienhagen K. Postoperative treatment and prognosis of patients with resected single brain metastasis: how useful are established prognostic scores?. Clinical Neurology and Neurosurgery 2011, 113(February (2)):98-103.
117. Nieder C., Mehta M.P. Prognostic indices for brain metastases - usefulness and challenges. Radiation Oncology 2009, 4(March):10.
118. Sperduto C.M., Watanabe Y., Mullan J., et al. A validation study of a new prognostic index for patients with brain metastases: the Graded Prognostic Assessment. Journal of Neurosurgery 2008, (December (109 Suppl.)):87-89.
119. Stillwell A.P., Ho Y.H., Veitch C. Systematic review of prognostic factors related to overall survival in patients with stage IV colorectal cancer and unresectable metastases. World Journal of Surgery 2011, 35(March (3)):684-692.
120. Grossman R., Mukherjee D., Chang D.C., et al. Predictors of inpatient death and complications among postoperative elderly patients with metastatic brain tumors. Annals of Surgical Oncology 2011, 18(February (2)):521-528.
121. Koh K.H., Rhee H., Kang H.J., et al. Differential gene expression profiles of metastases in paired primary and metastatic colorectal carcinomas. Oncology 2008, 75(1-2):92-101.
122. Franco-Hernandez C., Martinez-Glez V., Arjona D., et al. EGFR sequence variations and real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction analysis of gene dosage in brain metastases of solid tumors. Cancer Genetics and Cytogenetics 2007, 173(February (1)):63-67.
123. Yoo Y.A., Kang M.H., Kim J.S., Oh S.C. Sonic hedgehog signaling promotes motility and invasiveness of gastric cancer cells through TGF-beta-mediated activation of the ALK5-Smad 3 pathway. Carcinogenesis 2008, 29(March (3)):480-490.
124. Scartozzi M., Bearzi I., Berardi R., Mandolesi A., Fabris G., Cascinu S. Epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) status in primary colorectal tumors does not correlate with EGFR expression in related metastatic sites: implications for treatment with EGFR-targeted monoclonal antibodies. Journal of Clinical Oncology 2004, 22(December (23)):4772-4778.
125. Sun M., Behrens C., Feng L., et al. HER family receptor abnormalities in lung cancer brain metastases and corresponding primary tumors. Clinical Cancer Research 2009, 15(August (15)):4829-4837.
126. Tie J., Lipton L., Desai J., et al. KRAS mutation is associated with lung metastasis in patients with curatively resected colorectal cancer. Clinical Cancer Research 2011, 17(March (5)):1122-1130.
127. El-Osta H., Falchook G., Tsimberidou A., et al. BRAF mutations in advanced cancers: clinical characteristics and outcomes. PLoS One 2011, 6(10):e25806.