Prolactin - Not only lactotrophin a "new" view of the "old" hormone

Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology

Volumn 63, Issue 5, 2012, Pages 435-443

  Ignacak, A ^a   Kasztelnik, M ^a   Sliwa, T ^a   Korbut, R A ^a   Rajda, K ^a   Guzik, T J ^a  

^a JAGIELLONIAN UNIVERSITY MEDICAL COLLEGE   (Poland)

Author keywords

Central nervous system reparation; Endothelium function; Hormonal influence; Immune system; Metabolic effects; Prolactin

Indexed keywords

MESSENGER RNA; PROLACTIN; PROLACTIN RECEPTOR; PROTIRELIN;

ARTERIOSCLEROSIS; BLOOD SAMPLING; CELLULAR IMMUNITY; CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; HEART FAILURE; HORMONE ACTION; HORMONE RELEASE; HUMAN; HYPERPROLACTINEMIA; IMMUNOSTIMULATION; MATERNAL HYPERTENSION; METABOLISM; MOLECULAR GENETICS; NERVE REGENERATION; NONHUMAN; OSMOREGULATION; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PERIPARTUM CARDIOMYOPATHY; PROLACTIN BLOOD LEVEL; PROLACTIN GENE; PROTEIN STRUCTURE; REVIEW; SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION; STRUCTURE ACTIVITY RELATION; STRUCTURE ANALYSIS;

ANIMALS; CARDIOVASCULAR PHYSIOLOGICAL PHENOMENA; CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM; HUMANS; HYPERPROLACTINEMIA; IMMUNE SYSTEM; PROLACTIN; RECEPTORS, PROLACTIN;

EID: 84870581527     PISSN: 08675910     EISSN: 18991505     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (120)

1. Freeman ME, Kanyicska B, Lenart A, Nagy G. Prolactin: structure, function and regulation of secretion. Physiol Rev 2000; 80: 1523-1631.
2. DiMattia GE, Gellersen B, Bohnet HG, Friesen HG. A human B lymphoblastoid cell line produces prolactin. Endocrinology 1986; 122: 2508-2517.
3. Gellersen B, Kempf R, Telgmann R, DiMattia GE. Non- pituitary human prolactin gene transcription is independent of Pit-1 and differentially controlled in lymphocyte and in endometrial stroma. Mol Endocrinol 1994; 8: 356-373.
4. Ginburg E, Vonderhaar GK. Prolactin synthesis and secretion by human breast cancer cells. Cancer Res 1995; 55: 2591-2595.
5. Riddle O, Bates RW, Dykshon SW. The preparation, identification and assay of prolactin - a hormone of the anterior pituitary. Am J Phys 1993; 105: 91-216.
6. Ben-Jonathan N, Mershon JL, Allen DL, Steinmetz RW, Extrapituitary prolactin: distribution, regulation, functions, and clinical aspects. Endocrine Rev 1996; 17: 639-669.
7. Berwaer M, Martial JA, Devis JR, Characterization of an up- stream promoter directing extrapituitary expression of human prolactin gene. Mol Endocrinol 1994; 8: 635-642.
8. Hiraoka Y, Tatsumi K, Shiozawa M, et al. A placenta- specific 5' non-coding exon of human prolactin. Mol Cell Endocrinol 1991; 75: 71-80.
9. Fiedorowicz M. Uklad prolaktynoergiczny? Wytwarzanie i rola prolaktyny w mozgu. Kosmos 2004; 53: 305-314.
10. Adamson AD, Fieddrichsen S, Semprini S, et al. Human prolactin gene promoter regulation by estrogen: convergence with tumor necrosis factor-α signaling. Endocrinology 2007; 149: 687-694.
11. Bar-Shai M, Hasnis E, Weiner-Megnazi Z, Reznick AZ. The role of reactive nitrogen species and cigarette smoke in activation of transcription factor. NF-κB and implication to inflammatory processes. J Physiol Pharmacol 2006; 57(Suppl. 4): 39-44.
12. Reem GH, Ray DW, Davis JR. The human prolactin gene upstream promoter is regulated in lymphoid cells by activators of T-cells and by cAMP. J Mol Endocrinol 1999; 22: 285-293.
13. Clapp C, Mortial JA, Guzman RC. The 16-kilodalton N-terminal fragment of human PRL is potent inhibitor of angiogenesis. Endocrinology 1993; 133: 1292-1299.
14. Lee SH, Kunz J, Lin S-H., Yu-Lee LY. 16 kDa prolactin inhibits endothelial cell migration by down-regulating the ras-tian-1-rac1-pak1 signaling pathway. Cancer Res 2007; 67: 11045-11053.
15. Struman I, Bentizen F, Lee H. Opposing actions of intact and N-terminal fragment of human PRL/growth hormone family members on angiogenesis: an efficient mechanism of the regulation of angiogenesis. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1999; 96: 1246-1251.
16. Kinet V, Nguyen N, Sabatel C, et al. Antiangiogenic liposomal gene therapy with 16K human prolactin efficiently reduces tumor growth. Cancer Lett 2009; 284: 222-228.
17. Goffin V, Binart N, Touraine P, Kelly PA. Prolactin: the new biology of an old hormone. Annu Rev Physiol 2002; 64: 47-67.
18. Anthony PK, Stoltz RA, Pucci ML, Powers CA. The 22K variant of rat prolactin: evidence for identity to prolactin storage in secretory granules regulated release. Endocrinology 1993; 132: 806-814.
19. Sinha YN. Structural variants of prolactin: occurrence and physiological significance. Endocrine Rev 1995; 16: 354-369.
20. Bole-Feysot CH, Goffin V, Edery M, Binart N, Kelly PA. Prolactin (PRL) and its receptor: actions, signal transductions, pathways and phenotypes observed in PRL receptor knockout mice. Endocrine Rev 1998: 19: 225-268.
21. Clevenger CV, Kline JB. Prolactin receptor signal transduction. Lupus 2001; 10: 706-718.
22. Lebrun JJ, Ali S, Urlich A, Kelly PA. Proline-rich sequence-mediated JAK2 association to the prolactin receptor is required but not sufficient for signal. J Biol Chem 1995; 270: 10664-10670.
23. Chang WP, Ye Y, Clevenger CV. Stoichiometric structure-function analysis of the prolactin receptor signaling domain by receptor chimeras. Mol Cell Biol 1998; 18: 896-905.
24. Perrot-Applanat M, Gualillo O, Pezet A, Vincent V, Edery M, Kelly PA. Dominant negative and cooperative effects of mutant forms of prolactin receptor. Mol Endocrinol 1997; 11: 1020-1032.
25. Berlanga JJ, Garcia-Ruiz JP, Perrot-Applanat M, Kelly PA, Edery M. The short form of the prolactin receptor silences prolactin induction of the beta-casein gene promoter. Mol Endocrinol 1997; 11: 1449-1457.
26. Linkowski P, Spiegel K, Kerkhofs M, et al. Genetic and environmental influences on prolactin secretion during wake and during sleep. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 1998; 274: 909-919.
27. Parker DC, Rossman LG, Vanderlaan EE. Sleep-related, nyctohemeral and briefly episodic variation in human plasma prolactin concentrations. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1973; 36: 1119-1124.
28. Roush W. Can resetting hormonal rhythms treat illness? Science 1995; 269(5228): 1220-1221.
29. Chahal J, Schlechte J. Hyperprolactinemia. Pituitary 2008; 11: 141-146.
30. Chocyk A, Czyrak A, Wedzony K. Dopamine D1-like receptors agonist SKF 38393 increases cFOS expression in the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus - impact of acute and chronic cocaine. J Physiol Pharmacol 2008; 59: 425-440.
31. Bogacka I, Siawrys G, Okrasa S, Kaminski T, Przala J. The influence of GNRH, oxytocin and vasoactive intestinal peptide on LH and PRL secretion by porcine pituitary cells in vitro. J Physiol Pharmacol 2002; 53: 439-451.
32. Ciosek J, Cisowska A, Dabrowski R. Galanin affects of vasopressin and oxytocin release from the hypothalamo-neurohypophysial system in haemorrhaged rats. J Physiol Pharmacol 2003; 54: 233-246.
33. Ciosek J. Vasopressin and oxytocin release as influenced by thyrotropin-releasing hormone in euhydrated and dehydrated rats. J Physiol Pharmacol 2002; 53: 423-437.
34. Lipinska S. The role of adrenoreceptors in the regulation of oxytocin and vasopressin release after superior cervical ganglionectomy. J Physiol Pharmacol 2000; 51: 111-125.
35. Szafranska B, Tilton JE. Free intracellular calcium ([Ca2+]i) in opioid sensitive cells of the porcine anterior pituitary. J Physiol Pharmacol 2000; 51: 541-554.
36. Szczepankiewicz D, Skrzypski M, Pruszynska-Oszmelek E, et al. Importance of ghrelin in hypothalamus - pituitary axis on growth hormone release during normal pregnancy in the rat. J Physiol Pharmacol 2010; 61: 443-449.
37. Messini CI, Dafopoulos K, Chalvatzas N, Georgoulias P, Anifandis G, Messinis IE. Effect of ghrelin and thyrotropin- releasing hormone on prolactin secretion in normal women. Horm Metab Res 2010; 42: 204-208.
38. Baranowska B, Bik W, Baranowska-Bik A, Wolinska-Witort E, Chmielowska M, Martynska L. Cortistatin and pituitary hormone secretion in rats. J Physiol Pharmacol 2009; 60: 151-156.
39. Fukusumi S, Kitada C, Takekawa S. Identification and characterization of a novel human cortistatin-like peptide. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1997; 232: 158-163.
40. Korczynski W, Ceregrzyn M, Matyjek R, et al. Central and local (enteric) action of orexins. J Physiol Pharmacol 2006; 57(Suppl. 6): 17-42.
41. Molik E, Zieba DA, Misztal T, et al. The role of orexin A in the control of prolactin and growth hormone secretions in sheep in vitro study. J Physiol Pharmacol 2008; 59(Suppl. 9): 91-100.
42. Russell SH, Kim SM, Small CJ, et al. Central administration of orexin A suppresses basal and domperidone stimulated plasma prolactin. J Neuroendocrinol 2000; 12: 1213-1218.
43. Wedzony K, Chocyk A, Mackowiak M, Fijal K, Czyrak A. Cortical localization of dopamine D4 receptors in the rat brain - immunocytochemical study. J Physiol Pharmacol 2000; 51: 205-221.
44. Arbogast LA, Voogt JL. Endogenous opioid peptides contribute to suckling-induced prolactin release by suppressing tyrosine hydroxylase activity and messenger ribonucleic acid levels in tuberoinfundibular dopaminergic neurons. Endocrinology 1998; 139: 2857-2862.
45. De Greef WJ, Plotsky PM, Neill JD. Dopamine levels in hypophysial stalk plasma and prolactin levels in peripheral - plasma of the lactating rat: effects of a stimulated suckling stimulus. Neuroendocrinology 1981; 32: 229-233.
46. Arey BJ, Freeman ME. Activity of oxitocinergic neurons in the paraventricular nucleus mirrors the periodicity of the endogenous stimulatory rhythm regulating prolactin secretion. Endocrinology 1992; 130: 126-132.
47. De Greef WJ, Voogt JL, Visser TJ, Lamberts WJ, Van Der Shoot P. Control of prolactin release induced by suckling. Endocrinology 1987; 121: 316-322.
48. Nagy GM, Gorcs TJ, Halasz B. Attenuation of the suckling- induced prolactin release and the high afternoon oscillation of plasma prolactin secretion of lactating rats by antiserum to vasopressin. Neuroendocrinology 1991; 54: 566-570.
49. Brisken C, Kaur S, Chavarria TE, et al. Prolactin controls mammary gland development via direct and indirect mechanisms. Dev Biol 1999; 210: 96-106.
50. Vigen RA, Chen D, Syversen U, Stunes K, Hakanson R, Zhao CM. Serum gastrin and gastric enterochromaffin-like cells during estrous cycle, pregnancy and lactation, and in response to estrogen-like agents in rats. J Physiol Pharmacol 2011; 62: 335-340.
51. Imegawa W, Yang J, Guzman RC, Nandi S. Control of mammary gland growth and development. In: The Physiology of Reproduction, E. Knobil E, J.D. Neill (eds.), New York, Raven Press 1994, 1033-1063.
52. Wagner W, Ichikawa A, Tanaka S, Panula P, Fogel WA. Mouse mammary epithelial histamine system. J Physiol Pharmacol 2003; 54: 211-223.
53. Calogero AE, Weber RF, Raiti F, et al. Involvement of corticotropin-realising hormone and endogenous opioid peptides in prolactin-suppressed gonadotropin releasing hormone release in vitro. Neuroendocrinology 1994; 60: 291-296.
54. Marshal JC, Dalkin AC, Haisenleder DJ, Griffin ML, Kelch RP. GNRH pulses - the regulators of human reproduction. Trans Am Clin Climatol Assoc 1993; 104: 31-46.
55. Page-Wilson G, Smith PC, Welt CK. Prolactin suppresses GNRH but not TSH secretion. Horm Res 2006; 65: 31-38.
56. Rak A, Gregoraszczuk EL. Modulatory effect of ghrelin in prepubertal porcine ovarian follicles. J Physiol Pharmacol 2008; 59: 781-793.
57. Herman A, Kozlowski H, Czauderna M, Kochman K, Kulon K, Gajewska A. Gonadoliberin (GnRH) and its copper complex (Cu-GnRH) enzymatic degradation in hypothalamic and pituitary tissue in vitro. J Physiol Pharmacol 2012; 63: 69-75.
58. Wylot B, Staszkiewicz J, Okrasa S. The expression of genes coding for opioid precursors, opioid receptors, β-LH subunit and GnRH receptor in the anterior pituitary of cyclic gilts. J Physiol Pharmacol 2008; 59: 745-758.
59. Hamosh M, Hamosh P. The effect of prolactin on the lecithin content of fetal rabbit lung. J Clin Invest 1977; 59: 1002-1005.
60. Machida T, Taga M, Minaguchi H. Effect of prolactin (PRL) on lipoprotein lipase (LPL) activity in the rat fetal liver. Asia Oceania J Obstet Gynaecol 1990; 16: 261-265.
61. Lin Y, Hyde JF, Vore M. Prolactin regulates maternal bile secretory function post partum. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1992; 261: 560-566.
62. Sorenson RL, Brelie TC, Hegie OD, Marshall S, Anaya P, Sheridam JD. Prolactin (in vitro) decreases the glucose stimulation threshold, enhances insulin secretion, and increaces dye coupling among islet β cells. Endocrinology 1987; 121: 1447-1453.
63. +-ATPase activity located in the outer renal medulla of the rat. J Endocrinol 1986; 108: 95-99.
64. Richardsson BP. Evidence for a physiological role of prolactin in osmoregulation in the rat after its inhibition by 2- bromo-α-ergokryptine. Br J Pharmacol 1973; 47: 623-624.
65. Ibarra F, Crambert S, Eklof AC, Lundquist A, Hansell P, Holtback U. Prolactin, a natriuretic hormone, interacting with renal dopamine system. Kidney Int 2005; 68: 1700-1707.
66. Crambert S, Sjoberg A, Eklof AC, Ibarra F, Holtback U. Prolactin and dopamine 1-like receptor interaction in renal proximal tubular cells. Am J Physiol 2010; 299: F49-F54.
67. Vera-Lastra O, Jara LJ, Espinoza LR. Prolactin and autoimmunity. Autoimmunol Rev 2002; 6: 360-364.
68. Chavez-Rueda K, Hernandez J, Zenteno E, Leanos-Miranda A, Legorreta-Haquet MV, Blanco-Favela F. Identification of prolactin as a novel immunomodulator on the expression of co-stimulatory molecules and cytokine secretions on T and B human lymphocytes. Clin Immunol 2005; 116: 182-191.
69. Tomio A, Schust DJ, Kawana K, et al. Prolactin can modulate CD4+ T-cell response through receptor-mediated alterations in expression of T-bet. Immunol Cell Biol 2008; 86: 616-621.
70. Ostensen M, Villiger P. Immunology of pregnancy - pregnancy as a remission inducting agent in rheumatoid arthritis. Transpl Immunol 2002; 9: 155-160.
71. Confavreux C, Hutchinson M, Hours M, Cortinovis-Tourniaire P, Moreau T. Rate of pregnancy-related relapse in multiple sclerosis. N Engl J Med 1998; 339: 285-291.
72. Vukusic S, Hutchinson M, Hours M, et al. Pregnancy and multiple sclerosis (the PRIMUS study): clinical predictors of post-partum relapse. Brain 2004; 127: 1353-1360.
73. Gonzales GF, Velasques G, Garcia-Hjarles M. Hypoprolactinemia as related to seminal quality and serum testosterone. Arch Androl 1989; 23: 259-265.
74. Imrich R. The role of neuroendocrine system in the pathogenesis of rheumatic diseases. Endocr Regul 2002; 36: 95-106.
75. Buskila D, Berezin M, Gur H, et al. Autoantibody profile in the sera of women with hyperprolactinemia. J Autoimmun 1995; 8: 415-424.
76. Gregg C, Shikar V, Larsen P, et al. White matter plasticity and enhanced remyelination in the maternal CNS. J Neurosci 2007; 27: 1812-1823.
77. Pathipati P, Gorba T, Scheepens A, Goffin V, Fraser M. Growth hormone and prolactin regulate human neural stem cell regenerative activity. Neuroscience 2011; 190: 409-427.
78. Gregg C. Pregnancy, prolactin and white matter regeneration. J Neurol Sci 2009; 285: 22-27.
79. Saruta T, Kawabe H, Fujimaki M, Nagahama S, Saito I, Kondo K. Prolactin, renin and catecholamines in essential hypertension. Clin Exp Hypertens 1983; 5: 531-541.
80. Stumpe KO, Kolloch R, Higuchi M, Kruck F, Vetter H. Hyperprolactinaemia and antihypertensive effect of bromocriptine in essential hypertension. Identification of abnormal central dopamine control. Lancet 1977; 2: 211-214.
81. Lob HE, Marvar PJ, Guzik TJ, et al. Induction of hypertension and peripheral inflammation by reduction of extracellular superoxide dismutase in the central nervous system. Hypertension 2010; 55: 277-283.
82. Antoniades C, Shirodaria C, van Assche T, et al. GCH-1haplotype determines vascular and plasma biopterinavailability in coronary artery disease: effects on vascular superoxide production and endothelial function. J Am College Cardiol 2008; 52: 158-165.
83. Harrison DG, Guzik TJ, Lob HE, et al. Inflammation, immunity, and hypertension. Hypertension 2011; 57: 132-140.
84. Vinh A, Chen W, Blinder Y, et al. Inhibition and genetic ablation of the B7/CD28 T-cell costimulation axis prevents experimental hypertension. Circulation 2010; 122: 2529-2537.
85. Guzik TJ, Hoch NE, Brown K, et al. Role of the T-cell in the genesis of angiotensin II-induced hypertension and vascular dysfunction. J Exp Med 2007; 204: 2449-2460.
86. Molinari C, Grossini E, Mary DA. et al. Prolactin induces regional vasoconstriction through beta-2-adrenergic and nitric oxide mechanisms. Endocrinology 2007; 148: 4080-4090.
87. Gonzalez C, Cuevas P, Jothar LM, Manzo PL, Salcedo JV. Prolactin family regulate vascular tone through the modulation of nitric oxide production. FASEB J 2009; 23: 626-626.
88. Chen BL, Zhang ZH, Liu NB, Huang KS. Prolactin in normal pregnancy and severe pregnancy-induced hypertension. Hunan Yi Ke Da Xue Bao 2001; 26: 67-69.
89. Luciano AA, Varner MV. Decidual, amniotic fluid, maternal and fetal prolactin in normal and abnormal pregnancies. Obstet Gynecol 1984; 63: 384-388.
90. Miyakawa I, Taniyama K, Sakata M, Yamaguchi M, Mori N. Prolactin in severe toxemia of pregnancy. Eur J Obstst Gynecol Reprod Biol 1986; 23: 25-30.
91. Leanos-Miranda A, Marquez-Acosta J, Cardenas-Mondragon GM, Chinola-Arellano ZL, Rivera-Leanos R, Bermejo-Huerta S. Urinary prolactin as a reliable marker for preeclampsia. Its severity, and the currence of adverse pregnancy outcomes. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2008; 93: 2492-2499.
92. Hilfiker-Kleiner D, Kaminski K, Podewski E, Bonda T, Schaeffer A. A cathepsin D-cleaved 16 kDa form of prolactin mediates postpartum cardiomyopathy. Cell 2006; 128: 589-600.
93. Lee S, Nishino M, Mazumdar T, Garcia GE, Galfione M, Lee FL. 16-kDa prolactin down-regulates inducible nitric oxide synthase expression through inhibition of the signal transducer and activator of ranscription 1/IFN regulatory factor-1 pathway. Cancer Res 2005; 65: 7984-7992.
94. de Jong JS, Rietveld K, van Lochem LT, Bouma BJ. Rapid left ventricular recovery after cabergoline treatment in a patient with peripartum cardiomyopathy. Eur J Heart Fail 2009; 11: 220-222.
95. Hilfiker-Kleiner D, Meyer GP, Schieffer E, Goldman B, Podewski E. Recovery from postpartum cardiomyopathy in 2 patients by blocking prolactin release with bromocriptine. J Am Coll Cardiol 2007; 50: 2354-2355.
96. Nassar BA, Manku MS, Reed JD, Tynan M, Horrobin DF. Actions of prolacrin and furosemide on heart rate and rhythm. Br Med J 1974; 2: 27-29.
97. Georgiopoulos GA, Stamatelopoulos KS, Lambrinoudaki I, Lykka M, Kyrkou K. Prolactin and preclinical atherosclerosis in menopausal women with cardiovascular risk factors. Hypertension 2009; 54: 98-105.
98. Reuwer AQ, van Zaane B, van Wissen M, van Zanten AP, Twicker MT, Gerdes VE. Prolactin is involved in the systemic inflammatory response in myocardial infarction. Horm Metab Res 2011; 43: 62-65.
99. Opalinska-Ciszek E, Niemczyk S, Matuszkiewicz-Rowinska J. Prolactin (PRL), free thyroid hormones (fT4), (fT3) and testosterone (TTE) level in men with chronic heart failure. Pol Arch Med Wewn 2005; 113: 320-325.
100. Parissis J, Farmakis D, Nikolaou M, Bistola V, Rigas A. Clinical and neurohormonal correlates and prognostic value of serum prolactin levels in patients with chronic heart failure. Circulation 2008; 118: S1028-S1029.
101. Carrero JJ, Kyriazis J, Tzanakis I, et al. Prolactin levels, endothelial dysfunction and the risk of cardiovascular events and mortality in patients with CKD. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 2012; 7: 207-215.
102. Landberg E, Dahlstrom U, Alehagen U. Serum prolactin and macroprolactin in heart failure: no relation to established laboratory or clinical parameters. Am Clin Biochem 2011; 48: 51-56.
103. Limas CJ, Kroupis C, Haidaroglou A, Cokkinos DV. Hyperprolactinaemia in patients with heart failure: clinical and immunogenetic correlations. Eur J Clin Invest 2002; 32: 74-78.
104. Verhelst J, Abs R. Hiperprolactinemia: pathophysiology and management. Treat Endocrinol 2003; 2: 23-32.
105. Prabhakar VK, Davis JR. Hyperprolactinaemia. Best Pract Res Clin Obstet Gynaecol 2008; 22: 341-353.
106. Cortet-Rudelli C, Sapin R, Bonnecille JF, Brune T. Etiological diagnosis of hyperprolactinemia. Ann Endocrinol (Paris) 2007; 68: 98-105.
107. Delemer B. Prolactinomas: diagnosis and treatment. Presse Med 2009; 38: 117-124.
108. Demssie YN, Davis JR. Hiperprolactinaemia. Clin Med 2008; 8: 216-219.
109. Torre DL, Falorni A. Pharmacological causes of hiperprolactinemia. Ther Clin Risk Manag 2007; 3: 929-951.
110. Wieck A, Haddad PM. Antipsychotic-induced hyperprolactinaemia in women: pathophysiology, severity and consequences. Selective literature review. Br J Psychiatry 2003: 182: 199-204.
111. Kaluzny M, Bolanowski M. Hyperprolactinemia: etiology, clinical symptoms and therapy. Postepy Hig Med Dosw 2005; 59: 20-27.
112. Karasek M, Pawlikowski M, Lewinski A. Hyperprolactinemia: causes, diagnosis and treatment. Endokrynol Pol 2006; 57: 656-662.
113. Lech MM. The diagnosis of hyperprolactinemia in clinical practice. Ginekol Pol 2005; 76: 1008-10013.
114. St-Jean E, Blain F, Comtois R. High prolactin levels may be missed by immunoradiometric assay in patients with macroprolactinomas. Clin Endocrinol 1996; 44: 305-309.
115. Unnikrishnan AG, Rajaratnam S, Seshadri MS, Kanagasapabathy AS, Stephen DC. The hook effect on serum prolactin estimation in a patient with macroprolactinoma. Neurol India 2001; 49: 78-80.
116. Fahie-Wilson M. Macroprolactin. A common cause of interference in immunoassays for serum prolactin. Clin Lab News 2007; 33: 10-12.
117. Hattori N, Ikekubo K, Nakaya Y, Kitagawa K, Inagaki C. Immunoglobulin G subclasses and prolactin (PRL) isoforms in macroprolactinemia and normal menses. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2005; 90: 3036-3034.
118. Gibney J, Smith TP, McKenna TJ. Clinical relevance of macroprolactin. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2005; 62: 633-643.
119. Corona G, Mannuci E, Jannini EA, et al. Hypoprolactinemia: a new clinical syndrome in patients with sexual dysfunction. J Sex Med 2009; 6: 1457-1466.
120. Felmet KA, Hall MW, Clark RS, Jaffe R, Carcillo JA. Prolonged lymphopenia, lymphoid depletion and hypoprolactinemia in children with nosocomial sepsis and multiple organ failure. J Immunol 2005; 74: 3765-3772.