Point of care cardiac ultrasound applications in the emergency department and intensive care unit - a review

Current Cardiology Reviews

Volumn 8, Issue 2, 2012, Pages 98-108

  Arntfield, Robert T ^a   Millington, Scott J ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF WESTERN ONTARIO   (Canada)

^b UNIVERSITY OF OTTAWA   (Canada)

Author keywords

Echocardiography; Emergency department; ICU; Point of care; Ultrasound

Indexed keywords

FIBRINOLYTIC AGENT;

AORTA DISSECTION; ARTICLE; BLUNT TRAUMA; CENTRAL VENOUS PRESSURE; COMPUTER ASSISTED TOMOGRAPHY; CRITICALLY ILL PATIENT; DIAGNOSTIC ACCURACY; DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS; ECHOCARDIOGRAPHY; ELECTROCARDIOGRAM; EMERGENCY WARD; FIBRINOLYTIC THERAPY; FLUID RESUSCITATION; HEART ARREST; HEART HEMODYNAMICS; HEART INJURY; HEART LEFT VENTRICLE FUNCTION; HEART MUSCLE ISCHEMIA; HEART SURGERY; HEART TAMPONADE; HUMAN; HYPOTENSION; HYPOVOLEMIA; INTENSIVE CARE UNIT; LUNG EMBOLISM; MECHANICAL VENTILATOR; MEDICAL DECISION MAKING; NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; PENETRATING TRAUMA; PERICARDIAL EFFUSION; POINT OF CARE TESTING; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROGNOSIS; SENSITIVITY AND SPECIFICITY; SEPSIS; SEPTIC SHOCK; THORAX PAIN; TRANSESOPHAGEAL ECHOCARDIOGRAPHY; TRANSTHORACIC ECHOCARDIOGRAPHY;

BLOOD VOLUME; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES; DIAGNOSIS, DIFFERENTIAL; ECHOCARDIOGRAPHY; EMERGENCY SERVICE, HOSPITAL; HUMANS; HYPOTENSION; INTENSIVE CARE UNITS; PERICARDIAL EFFUSION; POINT-OF-CARE SYSTEMS; VENTRICULAR FUNCTION, LEFT;

EID: 84870267661     PISSN: 1573403X     EISSN: 18756557     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2174/157340312801784952     Document Type: Article

References (125)

1. Plummer D, Brunette D, Asinger R, Ruiz E. Emergency department echocardiography improves outcome in penetrating cardiac injury. Ann Emerg Med 1992; 21(6): 709-12.
2. Labovitz A, Noble V, Bierig M, et al. Focused cardiac ultrasound in the emergent setting: a consensus statement of the American Society of Echocardiography and American College of Emergency Physicians. J Am Soc Echocardiogr 2010; 23(12): 1225-30.
3. Mayo P, Beaulieu Y, Doelken P, et al. American College of Chest Physicians/La Société de Réanimation de Langue Française statement on competence in critical care ultrasonography. Chest 2009; 135(4): 1050-60.
4. Stewart W, Douglas P, Sagar K, et al. Echocardiography in emergency medicine: a policy statement by the American Society of Echocardiography and the American College of Cardiology. The Task Force on Echocardiography in Emergency Medicine of the American Society of Echocardiography and the Echocardiography TPEC Committees of the American College of Cardiology. J Am Soc Echocardiogr 1999;12(1): 82-4.
5. Moore C, Copel J. Point-of-care ultrasonography. N Engl J Med 2011; 364(8): 749-57.
6. Jones AE, Tayal VS, Sullivan DM, Kline JA. Randomized, controlled trial of immediate versus delayed goal-directed ultrasound to identify the cause of nontraumatic hypotension in emergency department patients. Crit Care Med 2004; 32(8): 1703-8.
7. Rivers E, Nguyen B, Havstad S, et al. Early goal-directed therapy in the treatment of severe sepsis and septic shock. N Engl J Med 2001; 345(19): 1368-77.
8. Mann H, Nolan P. Update on the management of cardiogenic shock. Curr Opin Crit Care 2006;12(5): 431-6.
9. Melamed R, Sprenkle M, Ulstad V, Herzog C, Leatherman J. Assessment of Left Ventricular Function by Intensivists Using Hand- Held Echocardiography. Chest 2009; 135(6): 1416-20.
10. Moore C, Rose G, Tayal V, Sullivan D, Arrowood J, Kline J. Determination of left ventricular function by emergency physician echocardiography of hypotensive patients. Acad Emerg Med 2002; 9(3): 186-93.
11. Randazzo M, Snoey E, Levitt M, Binder K. Accuracy of emergency physician assessment of left ventricular ejection fraction and central venous pressure using echocardiography. Acad Emerg Med. 2003;10(9):973-7.
12. Gunst A, Ghaemmaghami, Sperry, et al. Accuracy of cardiac function and volume status estimates using the bedside echocardiographic assessment in trauma/critical care. J Trauma 2008; 65(3): 509.
13. Michard F, Teboul J. Predicting fluid responsiveness in ICU patients: a critical analysis of the evidence. Chest 2002; 121(6): 2000-8.
14. Cook D. Clinical assessment of central venous pressure in the critically ill. Am J Med Sci 1990; 299(3): 175-8.
15. Davison R, Cannon R. Estimation of central venous pressure by examination of jugular veins. Am Heart J 1974; 87(3): 279-82.
16. Kircher B, Himelman R, Schiller N. Noninvasive estimation of right atrial pressure from the inspiratory collapse of the inferior vena cava. Am J Cardiol 1990; 66(4): 493-6.
17. Mintz G, Kotler M, Parry W, Iskandrian A, Kane S. Reat-time inferior vena caval ultrasonography: normal and abnormal findings and its use in assessing right-heart function. Circulation 1981; 64(5): 1018-25.
18. Feissel M, Michard F, Faller J, Teboul J. The respiratory variation in inferior vena cava diameter as a guide to fluid therapy. Intensive Care Med 2004; 30(9): 1834-7.
19. Schefold J, Storm C, Bercker S, et al. Inferior vena cava diameter correlates with invasive hemodynamic measures in mechanically ventilated intensive care unit patients with sepsis. J Emerg Med 2010; 38(5): 632-7.
20. Carr B, Dean A, Everett W, et al. Intensivist bedside ultrasound (INBU) for volume assessment in the intensive care unit: a pilot study. J Trauma 2007; 63(3): 495-500.
21. Stawicki S, Braslow B, Panebianco N, et al. Intensivist use of hand-carried ultrasonography to measure IVC collapsibility in estimating intravascular volume status: correlations with CVP. J Am Coll Surg 2009; 209(1): 55-61.
22. Feissel M, Michard F, Mangin I, Ruyer O, Faller J, Teboul J. Respiratory changes in aortic blood velocity as an indicator of fluid responsiveness in ventilated patients with septic shock. Chest 2001; 119(3): 867-73.
23. Vieillard-Baron A, Chergui K, Rabiller A, et al. Superior vena caval collapsibility as a gauge of volume status in ventilated septic patients. Intensive Care Med 2004; 30(9): 1734-9.
24. Moore C, Tham E, Samuels K, et al. Tissue Doppler of early mitral filling correlates with simulated volume loss in healthy subjects. Acad Emerg Med 2010; 17(11): 1162-8.
25. Jacques D, Pinsky M, Severyn D, Gorcsan J. Influence of alterations in loading on mitral annular velocity by tissue Doppler echocardiography and its associated ability to predict filling pressures. Chest 2004; 126(6): 1910-8.
26. Guberman B, Fowler N, Engel P, Gueron M, Allen J. Cardiac tamponade in medical patients. Circulation 1981; 64(3): 633-40.
27. Mandavia D, Hoffner R, Mahaney K, Henderson S. Bedside echocardiography by emergency physicians. Ann Emerg Med 2001; 38(4): 377-82.
28. Blaivas M. Incidence of pericardial effusion in patients presenting to the emergency department with unexplained dyspnea. Acad Emerg Med 2001; 8(12): 1143-6.
29. Tayal, Kline J. Emergency echocardiography to detect pericardial effusion in patients in PEA and near-PEA states. Resuscitation 2003; 59(3): 315.
30. Mercé J, Sagristà-Sauleda J, Permanyer-Miralda G, Evangelista A, Soler-Soler J. Correlation between clinical and Doppler echocardiographic findings in patients with moderate and large pericardial effusion: implications for the diagnosis of cardiac tamponade. Am Heart J 1999; 138(4 Pt 1): 759-64.
31. Ryan T, Armstrong WF. Feigenbaum's Echocardiography. 7 ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams; 2009.
32. Jones A, Craddock P, Tayal V, Kline J. Diagnostic accuracy of left ventricular function for identifying sepsis among emergency department patients with nontraumatic symptomatic undifferentiated hypotension. Shock 2005; 24(6): 513-7.
33. Vieillard-Baron A, Prin S, Chergui K, Dubourg O, Jardin F. Hemodynamic instability in sepsis: bedside assessment by Doppler echocardiography. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2003; 168(11): 1270-6.
34. Turnipseed S, Trythall W, Diercks D, et al. Frequency of Acute Coronary Syndrome in Patients with Normal Electrocardiogram Performed during Presence or Absence of Chest Pain. Acad Emerg Med 2009; 16(6): 495-9.
35. Parato V, Mehta A, Delfino D, et al. Resting Echocardiography for the Early Detection of Acute Coronary Syndromes in Chest Pain Unit Patients. Echocardiography 2010; 27(6): 597-602.
36. Sabia P, Afrookteh A, Touchstone D, Keller M, Esquivel L, Kaul S. Value of regional wall motion abnormality in the emergency room diagnosis of acute myocardial infarction. A prospective study using two-dimensional echocardiography. Circulation 1991; 84(3 Suppl): I85.
37. Mather P, Shah R. Echocardiography, nuclear scintigraphy, and stress testing in the emergency department evaluation of acute coronary syndrome. Emergency medicine clinics of North America. 2001; 19(2): 339-49.
38. Nienaber C, Von K, Nicolas V, Siglow V, Piepho A, Brockhoff C et al. The diagnosis of thoracic aortic dissection by noninvasive imaging procedures. N Engl J Med 1993; 328(1): 1-9.
39. Budhram G, Reardon R. Diagnosis of ascending aortic dissection using emergency department bedside echocardiogram. Acad Emerg Med 2008; 15(6): 584.
40. Perkins A, Liteplo A, Noble V. Ultrasound Diagnosis of Type A Aortic Dissection. J Emerg Med 2010; 38(4): 490-3.
41. Vignon P, Spencer K, Rambaud G, et al. Differential transesophageal echocardiographic diagnosis between linear artifacts and intraluminal flap of aortic dissection or disruption. Chest 2001; 119(6): 1778-90.
42. Wells P, Anderson D, Rodger M, et al. Excluding pulmonary embolism at the bedside without diagnostic imaging: management of patients with suspected pulmonary embolism presenting to the emergency department by using a simple clinical model and ddimer. Ann Intern Me 2001; 135(2): 98-107.
43. Ceylan N, Tasbakan S, Bayraktaroglu S, et al. Predictors of Clinical Outcome in Acute Pulmonary Embolism Correlation of CT Pulmonary Angiography with Clinical, Echocardiography and Laboratory Findings. Acad Radiol 2011; 18(1): 47-53.
44. Kasper W, Konstantinides S, Geibel A, Tiede N, Krause T, Just H. Prognostic significance of right ventricular afterload stress detected by echocardiography in patients with clinically suspected pulmonary embolism. Heart 1997; 77(4): 346-9.
45. Stein P, Matta F, Janjua M, Yaekoub A, Jaweesh F, Alrifai A. Outcome in Stable Patients With Acute Pulmonary Embolism Who Had Right Ventricular Enlargement and/or Elevated Levels of Troponin I. Am J Cardiol 2010; 106(4): 558-63.
46. Kline J, Steuerwald M, Marchick M, Hernandez-Nino J, Rose G. Prospective evaluation of right ventricular function and functional status 6 months after acute submassive pulmonary embolism: frequency of persistent or subsequent elevation in estimated pulmonary artery pressure. Chest 2009; 136(5): 1202-10.
47. Kearon C, Kahn S, Agnelli G, Goldhaber S, Raskob G, Comerota A. Antithrombotic therapy for venous thromboembolic disease: American College of Chest Physicians Evidence-Based Clinical Practice Guidelines (8th Edition). Chest 2008; 133(6 Suppl): 454S-545S.
48. Mansencal N, Vieillard-Baron, Beauchet A, et al. Triage patients with suspected pulmonary embolism in the emergency department using a portable ultrasound device. Echocardiography 2008; 25(5): 451-6.
49. Mansencal N, Redheuil A, Joseph T, et al. Use of transthoracic echocardiography combined with venous ultrasonography in patients with pulmonary embolism. Int J Cardiol 2004; 96(1): 59-63.
50. Rozycki, Feliciano, Ochsner, et al. The role of ultrasound in patients with possible penetrating cardiac wounds: a prospective multicenter study. J Trauma 1999; 46(4): 543.
51. Nagy K, Lohmann C, Kim D, Barrett J. Role of echocardiography in the diagnosis of occult penetrating cardiac injury. J Trauma 1995; 38(6): 859-62.
52. Rozycki, Feliciano, Ochsner, et al. The role of surgeon-performed ultrasound in patients with possible cardiac wounds. Ann Surg 1996; 223(6): 737.
53. Tayal Beatty M, Marx J, Tomaszewski C, Thomason. FAST (focused assessment with sonography in trauma) accurate for cardiac and intraperitoneal injury in penetrating anterior chest trauma. Journal of Ultrasound in Medicine. 2004;23(4):467.
54. Blaivas, De Behnke, Phelan. Potential errors in the diagnosis of pericardial effusion on trauma ultrasound for penetrating injuries. Acad Emerg Med 2000; 7(11): 1261-6.
55. Meyer D, Jessen M, Grayburn P. Use of echocardiography to detect occult cardiac injury after penetrating thoracic trauma: a prospective study. J Trauma 1995; 39(5): 902-7.
56. Speight J, Sanders M. Pericardial tamponade with a positive abdominal FAST scan in blunt chest trauma. J Trauma 2006; 61(3): 743.
57. Baxa M. Cardiac rupture secondary to blunt trauma: a rapidly diagnosable entity with two-dimensional echocardiography. Ann Emerg Med 1991; 20(8): 902-4.
58. Schiavone W, Ghumrawi B, Catalano D, et al. The use of echocardiography in the emergency management of nonpenetrating traumatic cardiac rupture. Ann Emerg Med 1991; 20(11): 1248-50.
59. Patel N, Stephens K, Mirvis S, Shanmuganathan K, Mann F. Imaging of acute thoracic aortic injury due to blunt trauma: a review. Radiology 1998; 209(2): 335-48.
60. Varriale P, Maldonado J. Echocardiographic observations during in hospital cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Crit Care Med 1997; 25(10): 1717-20.
61. Salen P, Melniker Chooljian, et al. Does the presence or absence of sonographically identified cardiac activity predict resuscitation outcomes of cardiac arrest patients? Am J Emerg Med 2005; 23(4): 459-62.
62. Salen P, O'Connor R, Sierzenski P, et al. Can cardiac sonography and capnography be used independently and in combination to predict resuscitation outcomes? Acad Emerg Med 2001; 8(6): 610-5.
63. Blaivas, Fox. Outcome in cardiac arrest patients found to have cardiac standstill on the bedside emergency department echocardiogram. Ann Emerg Med 2001; 8(6): 616-21.
64. Testa A, Cibinel G, Portale G, et al. The proposal of an integrated ultrasonographic approach into the ALS algorithm for cardiac arrest: the PEA protocol. Eur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci 2010; 14(2): 77-88.
65. Hernandez C, Shuler K, Hannan H, Sonyika C, Likourezos A, Marshall J. CAUSE: Cardiac arrest ultra-sound exam--a better approach to managing patients in primary non-arrhythmogenic cardiac arrest. Resuscitation 2008; 76(2): 198-206.
66. Morrison L, Deakin C, Morley P, et al. Part 8: advanced life support: 2010 International Consensus on Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation and Emergency Cardiovascular Care Science With Treatment Recommendations. Circulation 2010; 122(16 Suppl 2): S345-421.
67. Blaivas. Transesophageal echocardiography during cardiopulmonary arrest in the emergency department. Resuscitation 2008; 78(2): 135-40.
68. Barash PG, Cullen BF, Stoelting RK, Cahalan M, Stock MC, editor. Clinical Anesthesia. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams; 2009.
69. Cook CH, Praba AC, Beery PR, Martin LC. Transthoracic echocardiography is not cost-effective in critically ill surgical patients. J Trauma 2002; 52(2): 280-4.
70. Vignon P, Mentec H, Terré S, Gastinne H, Guéret P, Lemaire F. Diagnostic accuracy and therapeutic impact of transthoracic and transesophageal echocardiography in mechanically ventilated patients in the ICU. Chest 1994; 106(6): 1829-34.
71. Parker M, Cunnion R, Parrillo J. Echocardiography and nuclear cardiac imaging in the critical care unit. JAMA 1985; 254(20): 2935-9.
72. Vieillard-Baron A, Qanadli SD, Antakly Y, et al. Transesophageal echocardiography for the diagnosis of pulmonary embolism with acute cor pulmonale: a comparison with radiological procedures. Intensive Care Med 1998; 24(5): 429-33.
73. Jardin F, Vieillard-Baron A. Right ventricular function and positive pressure ventilation in clinical practice: from hemodynamic subsets to respirator settings. Intensive Care Med 2003; 29(9): 1426-34.
74. Yeh YL, Liu CK, Chang WK, Chan KH, Li JY, Tsai SK. Detection of right to left shunt by transesophageal echocardiography in a patient with postoperative hypoxemia. J Formos Med Assoc 2006; 105(5): 418-21.
75. Lichtenstein D, Mezière G, Biderman P, Gepner A. The comet-tail artifact: an ultrasound sign ruling out pneumothorax. Intensive Care Med 1999; 25(4): 383-8.
76. Lichtenstein DA, Menu Y. A bedside ultrasound sign ruling out pneumothorax in the critically ill. Lung sliding. Chest 1995; 108(5): 1345-8.
77. Lichtenstein D, Mezière G. A lung ultrasound sign allowing bedside distinction between pulmonary edema and COPD: the comettail artifact. Intensive Care Med 1998; 24(12): 1331-4.
78. Volpicelli G, Mussa A, Garofalo G, et al. Bedside lung ultrasound in the assessment of alveolar-interstitial syndrome. Am J Emerg Med 2006; 24(6): 689-96.
79. Lichtenstein DA, Lascols N, Prin S, Mezière G. The lung pulse: an early ultrasound sign of complete atelectasis. Intensive Care Med 2003; 29(12): 2187-92.
80. Kern JW, Shoemaker WC. Meta-analysis of hemodynamic optimization in high-risk patients. Crit Care Med 2002; 30(8): 1686-92.
81. Michard F, Teboul JL. Using heart-lung interactions to assess fluid responsiveness during mechanical ventilation. Crit Care 2000; 4(5): 282-9.
82. Pinsky MR. Assessment of indices of preload and volume responsiveness. Curr Opin Crit Care 2005; 11(3): 235-9.
83. Vieillard-Baron A, Chergui K, Rabiller A, et al. Superior vena caval collapsibility as a gauge of volume status in ventilated septic patients. Intensive Care Med 2004; 30(9): 1734-9.
84. Price S, Nicol E, Gibson DG, Evans TW. Echocardiography in the critically ill: current and potential roles. Intensive Care Med 2006; 32(1): 48-59.
85. Jardin F, Brun-Ney D, Hardy A, Aegerter P, Beauchet A, Bourdarias JP. Combined thermodilution and two-dimensional echocardiographic evaluation of right ventricular function during respiratory support with PEEP. Chest 1991; 99(1): 162-8.
86. Gernoth C, Wagner G, Pelosi P, Luecke T. Respiratory and haemodynamic changes during decremental open lung positive endexpiratory pressure titration in patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome. Critical Care 2009; 13(2): R59.
87. Park KJ, Oh YJ, Chang HJ, et al. Acute Hemodynamic Effects of Recruitment Maneuvers in Patients With Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome. J Intensive Care Med 2009; 24(6): 376-82.
88. Lamia B, Maizel J, Ochagavia A, et al. Echocardiographic diagnosis of pulmonary artery occlusion pressure elevation during weaning from mechanical ventilation. Crit Care Med 2009; 37(5): 1696-701.
89. American Society of Anesthesiologists and Society of Cardiovascular Anesthesiologists Task Force on Transesophageal Echocardiography. Practice guidelines for perioperative transesophageal echocardiography. An updated report by the American Society of Anesthesiologists and the Society of Cardiovascular Anesthesiologists Task Force on Transesophageal Echocardiography. Anesthesiology 2010; 112(5):1084-96.
90. Costachescu T, Denault A, Guimond JG, et al. The hemodynamically unstable patient in the intensive care unit: hemodynamic vs. transesophageal echocardiographic monitoring. Crit Care Med 2002; 30(6): 1214-23.
91. Couture P, Denault AY, McKenty S, et al. Impact of routine use of intraoperative transesophageal echocardiography during cardiac surgery. Can J Anaesth 2000; 47(1): 20-6.
92. Cook CH, Praba AC, Beery PR, Martin LC. Transthoracic echocardiography is not cost-effective in critically ill surgical patients. J Trauma 2002; 52(2): 280-4.
93. Price S, Prout J, Jaggar SI, Gibson DG, Pepper JR. 'Tamponade' following cardiac surgery: terminology and echocardiography may both mislead. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg 2004; 26(6): 1156-60.
94. Lennon MJ, Gibbs NM, Weightman WM, Leber J, Ee HC, Yusoff IF. Transesophageal echocardiography-related gastrointestinal complications in cardiac surgical patients. J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth 2005; 19(2): 141-5.
95. Kallmeyer IJ, Collard CD, Fox JA, Body SC, Shernan SK. The safety of intraoperative transesophageal echocardiography: a case series of 7200 cardiac surgical patients. Anesth Analg 2001; 92(5): 1126-30.
96. Piercy M, McNicol L, Dinh DT, Story DA, Smith JA. Major complications related to the use of transesophageal echocardiography in cardiac surgery. J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth 2009; 23(1): 62-5.
97. Hamid M, Khan MU, Bashour AC. Diagnostic value of chest X-ray and echocardiography for cardiac tamponade in post cardiac surgery patients. J Pak Med Assoc 2006; 56(3): 104-7.
98. Bommer WJ, Follette D, Pollock M, Arena F, Bognar M, Berkoff H. Tamponade in patients undergoing cardiac surgery: a clinicalechocardiographic diagnosis. Am Heart J 1995; 130(6): 1216-23.
99. Tsang TS, Oh JK, Seward JB, Tajik AJ. Diagnostic value of echocardiography in cardiac tamponade. Herz. 2000;25(8):734-40.
100. Skiles JA, Griffin BP. Transesophageal echocardiographic (TEE) evaluation of ventricular function. Cardiol Clin 2000; 18(4): 681- 97, vii.
101. Comunale ME, Body SC, Ley C, et al. The concordance of intraoperative left ventricular wall-motion abnormalities and electrocardiographic S-T segment changes: association with outcome after coronary revascularization. Multicenter Study of Perioperative Ischemia (McSPI) Research Group. Anesthesiology 1998; 88(4): 945-54.
102. Skubas NJ. Two-dimensional, non-Doppler strain imaging during anesthesia and cardiac surgery. Echocardiography 2009; 26(3): 345-53.
103. Maclaren G, Kluger R, Connelly KA, Royse CF. Comparative Feasibility of Myocardial Velocity and Strain Measurements Using 2 Different Methods With Transesophageal Echocardiography During Cardiac Surgery. J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth 2010;
104. Horton KD, Meece RW, Hill JC. Assessment of the right ventricle by echocardiography: a primer for cardiac sonographers. J Am Soc Echocardiogr 2009; 22(7): 776-92.
105. Tamborini G, Muratori M, Brusoni D, et al. Is right ventricular systolic function reduced after cardiac surgery? A two- and threedimensional echocardiographic study. Eur J Echocardiogr 2009; 10(5): 630-4.
106. Piccoli M, Trambaiolo P, Salustri A, et al. Bedside diagnosis and follow-up of patients with pleural effusion by a hand-carried ultrasound device early after cardiac surgery. Chest 2005; 128(5): 3413-20.
107. McKenney PA, Apstein CS, Mendes LA, et al. Increased left ventricular diastolic chamber stiffness immediately after coronary artery bypass surgery. J Am Coll Cardiol 1994; 24(5): 1189-94.
108. Tan CN, Fraser AG. Transesophageal echocardiography and cardiovascular sources of embolism: implications for perioperative management. Anesthesiology 2007; 107(2): 333-46.
109. Rupert E, Paul A, Mukherji J. Transoesophageal echocardiography: a useful tool to diagnose entrapment of pulmonary artery catheter. Anaesthesia 2006; 61(7): 702-4.
110. Nagueh SF, Middleton KJ, Kopelen HA, Zoghbi WA, Quiñones MA. Doppler tissue imaging: a noninvasive technique for evaluation of left ventricular relaxation and estimation of filling pressures. J Am Coll Cardiol 1997; 30(6): 1527-33.
111. Ommen SR, Nishimura RA, Appleton CP, et al. Clinical Utility of Doppler Echocardiography and Tissue Doppler Imaging in the Estimation of Left Ventricular Filling Pressures:Clinical Investigation and Reports. Circulation. 2000; 102: 1788-94.
112. Bouhemad B, Nicolas-Robin A, Benois A, Lemaire S, Goarin JP, Rouby JJ. Echocardiographic Doppler assessment of pulmonary capillary wedge pressure in surgical patients with postoperative circulatory shock and acute lung injury. Anesthesiology 2003; 98(5): 1091-100.
113. Vignon P, AitHssain A, François B, et al. Echocardiographic assessment of pulmonary artery occlusion pressure in ventilated patients: a transoesophageal study. Crit Care 2008; 12(1): R18.
114. Poelaert J, Schmidt C, Van Aken H, Hinder F, Mollhoff T, Loick HM. A comparison of transoesophageal echocardiographic Doppler across the aortic valve and the thermodilution technique for estimating cardiac output. Anaesthesia 1999; 54(2): 128-36.
115. Perrino AC, Harris SN, Luther MA. Intraoperative determination of cardiac output using multiplane transesophageal echocardiography: a comparison to thermodilution. Anesthesiology 1998; 89(2): 350-7.
116. Oh JK, Seward JB, Tajik AJ. The Echo Manual. 3 ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams; 2006.+
117. Teichgräber UK, Benter T, Gebel M, Manns MP. A sonographically guided technique for central venous access. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1997; 169(3): 731-3.
118. Randolph AG, Cook DJ, Gonzales CA, Pribble CG. Ultrasound guidance for placement of central venous catheters: a meta-analysis of the literature. Crit Care Med 1996; 24(12): 2053-8.
119. Hanaki Y, Kamiya H, Todoroki H, et al. New two-dimensional, echocardiographically directed pericardiocentesis in cardiac tamponade. Crit Care Med 1990; 18(7): 750-3.
120. Vayre F, Lardoux H, Pezzano M, Bourdarias JP, Dubourg O. Subxiphoid pericardiocentesis guided by contrast two-dimensional echocardiography in cardiac tamponade: experience of 110 consecutive patients. Eur J Echocardiogr 2000; 1(1): 66-71.
121. Salem K, Mulji A, Lonn E. Echocardiographically guided pericardiocentesis - the gold standard for the management of pericardial effusion and cardiac tamponade. Can J Cardiol 1999; 15(11): 1251-5.
122. Neri L, Storti E, Lichtenstein D. Toward an ultrasound curriculum for critical care medicine. Crit Care Med 2007; 35(5 Suppl): S290-304.
123. Mazraeshahi RM, Farmer JC, Porembka DT. A suggested curriculum in echocardiography for critical care physicians. Crit Care Med 2007; 35(8 Suppl): S431-3.
124. Utsunomiya T, Ogawa T, King SW, Sunada E, Lobodzinski SM, Henry WL, Gardin JM. Pitfalls in the Display of Color Doppler Jet Areas Combined Variability Due to Doppler Angle Frame Rate and Scanning Direction. Echocardiography 1990; 7(6): 739-45.
125. Alam M. Pitfalls in the Echocardiographic Diagnosis of Intracardiac and Extracardiac Masses. Echocardiography 1993; 10(2): 181-91.