Pediatric aspects of thyroid function and iodine

Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine

Volumn 11, Issue , 2007, Pages 56-79

  Knobel, Meyer ^a   Medeiros Neto, Geraldo ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF SÃO PAULO   (Brazil)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84870194916     PISSN: 10175989     EISSN: 16623886     Source Type: Book Series    
DOI: 10.1159/000098020     Document Type: Article

References (94)

1. Delange F: The role of iodine in brain development. Proc Nutr Soc 2000;59:1-5.
2. Hetzel BS, Clugston GA: Iodine; in Shils M, Olson JA, Shike M, Ross AC (eds): Nutrition in Health and Disease. Baltimore, Williams & Wilkins, 1999, vol 9, pp 253-264.
3. Dunn JT: What's happening to our iodine? J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1998;83:3398-3400.
4. Semba RD, Delange F: Iodine in human milk: perspectives of infant health. Nutr Rev 2001;59:269-278. (Pubitemid 32757677)
5. Dorea JG: Iodine nutrition and breast-feeding. J Trace Elem Med Biol 2002;16:207-220.
6. Ares S, Quero J, Morreale de Escobar G: Neonatal iodine insufficiency: clinical aspects. J Pediatr Endocrinol Metab 2005;18:1257-1264. (Pubitemid 43019988)
7. Food and Nutrition Board, Institute of Medicine: Iodine. Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc. Washington, National Academy Press, 2001.
8. Delange F: Iodine deficiency in Europe and its consequences: an update. Eur J Nucl Med 2002;29(suppl 2):S404-S416. (Pubitemid 34985339)
9. WHO, UNICEF and ICCIDD: Indicators for Assessing Iodine Deficiency Disorders and Their Control Through Salt Iodization. Geneva, WHO, WHO/NUT/94.6, 1994.
10. World Health Organization: WHO global database on iodine deficiency. Internet: http://www3. who.int/whosis/micronutrient. Accessed 18 May, 2006.
11. Dumont JE, Ermans AM, Maenhaut G, Coppee F, Stanbury JB: Large goiter as a maladaptation to iodine deficiency. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 1995;43:1-10.
12. WHO, UNICEF and ICCIDD: Assessment of Iodine Deficiency Disorders and Monitoring Their Elimination. Geneva, WHO, WHO/NHD/01.1, 2001.
13. Delange F: Iodine deficiency as a cause of brain damage. Postgrad Med J 2001;77:217-220. (Pubitemid 32269777)
14. Morreale de Escobar G, Obregon MJ, Escobar del Rey F: Role of thyroid hormone during early brain development. Eur J Endocrinol 2004;151:U25-U37. (Pubitemid 39627053)
15. Pemberton HN, Franklyn JA, Kilby MD: Thyroid hormones and fetal brain development. Minerva Ginecol 2005;57:367-378. (Pubitemid 41503743)
16. Calvo RM, Jauniaux E, Gulbis B, Asuncion M, Gervy C, Contempre B, Morreale de Escobar G: Fetal tissues are exposed to biologically relevant free thyroxine concentrations during early phases of development: possible consequences of maternal hypothyroxinemia. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2002;87:1768-1777. (Pubitemid 34615267)
17. Vulsma T, Gons MH, de Vijlder J: Maternal-fetal transfer of thyroxine in congenital hypothyroidism due to a total organification defect or thyroid agenesis. N Engl J Med 1989;321:13-16. (Pubitemid 19170379)
18. Calvo RM, Obregon MJ, Ruiz de Ona C, Escobar del Rey F, Morreale de Escobar G: Congenital hypothyroidism, as studied in rats: crucial role of maternal thyroxine but not of 3, 5, 3'-triiodothyronine in the protection of the fetal brain. J Clin Invest 1990;86:889-899. (Pubitemid 20327381)
19. Glinoer D: The regulation of thyroid function in pregnancy: pathways of endocrine adaptation from physiology to pathology. Endocr Rev 1997;18:404-433. (Pubitemid 27246883)
20. De Long GR, Leslie PW, Wang SH, Jiang XM, Zhang ML, Rakeman M, Jiang JY, Ma T, Cao XY: Effect on infant mortality of iodination of irrigation water in a severely iodine-deficient area of China. Lancet 1997;350:771-773. (Pubitemid 27387205)
21. Hetzel BS: Iodine and neuropsychological development. J Nutr 2000;130(suppl):S493-S495.
22. Delange F: Screening for congenital hypothyroidism used as an indicator of IDD control. Thyroid 1998;8:1185-1192.
23. Delange F: Neonatal screening for congenital hypothyroidism: results and perspectives. Horm Res 1997;48:51-61. (Pubitemid 27331288)
24. Delange F, Bourdoux P, Ketelbant-Balasse P, van Humskerken A, Glinoer D, Ermans AM: Transient primary hypothyroidism in the newborn; in Walker P, Dussault JH (eds). Congenital Hypothyroidism. New York, Dekker, 1983, pp 275-301.
25. Delange F, Dalhem A, Bourdoux P, Lagasse R, Glinoer D, Fisher DA, Walfish PG, Ermans AM: Increased risk of primary hypothyroidism in preterm infants. J Pediatr 1984;105:462-469. (Pubitemid 14072138)
26. Delange F: Epidemiology and impact of iodine deficiency in pediatrics. J Pediatr Endocrinol Metab 2005;18(suppl 1):1245-1251. (Pubitemid 43019986)
27. Kester MH, Martinez de Mena R, Obregon MJ, Marinkovic D, Howatson A, Visser TJ, Hume R, Morreale de Escobar G: Iodothyronine levels in the human developing brain: major regulatory roles of iodothyronine deiodinases in different areas. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2004;89:3117-3128. (Pubitemid 38951872)
28. Lavado-Autric R, Auso E, Garcia-Velasco JV, Arufe Mdel C, Escobar del Rey F, Berbel P, Morreale de Escobar G: Early maternal hypothyroxinemia alters histogenesis and cerebral cortex cytoarchitecture of the progeny. J Clin Invest 2003;111:1073-1082. (Pubitemid 36397484)
29. Bernal J: Thyroid hormones and brain development. Vitam Horm 2005;71:95-122. (Pubitemid 43589035)
30. de Vries LS, Heckmatt JZ, Burrin JM, Dubowitz V: Low serum thyroxine concentrations and neural maturation in preterm infants. Arch Dis Child 1986;61:862-866. (Pubitemid 16013854)
31. den Ouden AL, Kok JH, Verkerk PH, Brand R, Verloove-Vanhorick SP: The relation between neonatal thyroxine levels and neurodevelopmental outcome at age 5 and 9 years in a national cohort of very preterm and/or very low birth weight infants. Arch Dis Child 1996;67:944-947.
32. Medeiros-Neto G, Knobel M: Iodine deficiency disorders; in Degroot LJ, Jameson L (eds): Endocrinology, ed 5. Philadelphia, Elsevier Saunders, 2006, vol 2, pp 2129-2145.
33. Hetzel BS, Potter BJ: Iodine deficiency and the role of thyroid hormones in brain development; in Dreosti JE, Smith RM (eds): Neurobiology of the Trace Elements. Clifton, Humana, 1983, pp 83-133.
34. Stanbury JB, Kroc RL: Human Development and the Thyroid Gland: Relation to Endemic Cretinism. New York, Plenum, 1972.
35. Halpern JP, Boyages SC, Maberly GF, Collins JK, Eastman CJ, Morris JG: The neurology of endemic cretinism: a study of two endemias. Brain 1991;114:825-841.
36. Halpern JP: Studies of hearing abnormality in endemic cretinism in Qinghai Province, PRC; in Stanbury JB (ed): The Damaged Brain of Iodine Deficiency: Cognitive Behavioral, Neuromotor and Educative Aspects. New York, Cognizant Communication, 1994, pp 273-277.
37. Vanderpas JB, Contempre B, Nuale NL, Goossens W, Bebe N, Thorpe R, Ntambue K, Dumont J, Thilly CH, Diplock AT: Iodine and selenium deficiency associated with cretinism in Northern Zaire. Am J Clin Nutr 1990;52:1087-1093. (Pubitemid 120008217)
38. Boyages SC, Halpern JP: Endemic cretinism: toward a unifying hypothesis. Thyroid 1993;3:59-71.
39. Bleichrodt N, Shrestha RM, West CE, Hautvast JG, van de Vijver FJ, Born MP: The benefits of adequate iodine intake. Nutr Rev 1996;54:S72-S78. (Pubitemid 26245099)
40. Tiwari BD, Godbole MM, Chattopadhyay N, Mandal A, Mithal A: Learning disabilities and poor motivation to achieve due to prolonged iodine deficiency. Am J Clin Nutr 1996;63:782-786. (Pubitemid 26126600)
41. Delange F: Adaptation to iodine deficiency during growth: Etiopathogenesis of endemic goiter and cretinism; in Delange F, Fisher D, P Malvaux P (eds): Pediatric Thyroidology. Basel, Karger, 1985, pp 295-326.
42. Doufas AG, Mastorakos G, Chatziioannou S, Tseleni-Balafouta S, Piperingos G, Boukis MA, Mantzos E, Caraiskos CS, Mantzos J, Alevizaki M, Koutras DA: The predominant form of nontoxic goiter in Greece is now autoimmune thyroiditis. Eur J Endocrinol 1999;140:505-511. (Pubitemid 29314712)
43. Delange F, Bourdoux P, Laurence M, Peneva L, Walfish P, Willgerodt H: Neonatal thyroid function in iodine deficiency; in Delange F, Dunn JT, Glinoer D (eds): Iodine deficiency in Europe. A Continuing Concern. New York, Plenum Press, 1993, pp 199-210.
44. Levander OA, Whanger PD: Deliberations and evaluations of the approaches, endpoints and paradigms for selenium and iodine dietary recommendations. J Nutr 1996;126(suppl 9):S2427-S2434.
45. Vanderpas JB, Contempre B, Duale NL, Deckx H, Bebe N, Longombe AO, Thilly CH, Diplock AT, Dumont JE: Selenium deficiency mitigates hypothyroxinemia in iodine-deficient subjects. Am J Clin Nutr 1993;57:S271-S275.
46. Zimmermann MB, Adou P, Zeder C, Torresani T, Hurrell RF: Persistence of goiter despite oral iodine supplementation in goitrous children with iron deficiency anemia in the Côte d'Ivoire. Am J Clin Nutr 2000;71:88-93. (Pubitemid 30033589)
47. Zimmermann MB, Kohrle J: The impact of iron and selenium deficiencies on iodine and thyroid metabolism: biochemistry and relevance to public health. Thyroid 2002;12:867-878. (Pubitemid 35332991)
48. Zimmermann MB, Zeder C, Chaouki N, Torresani T, Saad A, Hurrell RF: 2002 Addition of encapsulated iron to iodized salt improves the efficacy of iodine in goitrous, iron-deficient schoolchildren: a randomized, double blind, controlled trial. Eur J Endocrinol 2002;147:747-753. (Pubitemid 36032963)
49. Li GS, Wang F, Kang D, Li C: Keshan disease: an endemic cardiomyopathy in China. Hum Pathol 1995;16:602-609.
50. Beck MA: Rapid genomic evolution of a non-virulent coxsackievirus B3 in selenium-deficient mice. Biomed Environm Sci 1997;10:307-315. (Pubitemid 127472093)
51. Utiger RD: Kashin-Beck disease: expanding the spectrum of iodine-deficiency disorders. N Engl J Med 1998;339:1156-1158.
52. Moreno Reyes R, Suetens C, Mathieuw F, Begaux F, Zhu D, Rivera MT, Boelaert M, Neve J, Perlmutter N, Vanderpas J: Kashin-Beck osteoarthropathy in rural Tibet in relation to selenium and iodine status. N Engl J Med 1998;339:1112-1120. (Pubitemid 28465759)
53. West KP: Extent of vitamin A deficiency among preschool children and women of reproductive age. J Nutr 2002;132(suppl):S2857-S2866.
54. Chaouki N, Ottmani S, Saad A, Hamdaoui M, Benabdejlil C, Kadiri A, Ababou R, Mahjour J: The prevalence of iodine deficiency disorders in children 6-12 years old in Morocco. Bull Epidemiol Morocco 1996;1:2-23.
55. Zimmermann MB, Wegmuller R, Zeder C, Chaouki N, Torresani T: The effects of vitamin A deficiency and vitamin A supplementation on thyroid function in goitrous children. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2004;89:5441-5447. (Pubitemid 39518423)
56. Kralik A, Eder K, Kirchgessner M: Influence of zinc and selenium deficiency on parameters relating to thyroid hormone metabolism. Horm Metab Res 1996;28:223-226. (Pubitemid 26173488)
57. Donangelo CM, Woodhouse LR, King SM, Viteri FE, King JC: Supplemental zinc lowers measures of iron status in young women with low iron resources. J Nutr 2002;132:1860-1864. (Pubitemid 34745994)
58. Ruz M, Codoceo J, Galgani J, Munoz L, Gras N, Muzzo S, Leiva L, Bosco C: Single and multiple selenium-zinc-iodine deficiencies affect rat thyroid metabolism and ultrastructure. J Nutr 1999;129:174-180. (Pubitemid 29044778)
59. Gaitan E: Goitrogens in food and water. Annu Rev Nutr 1990;10:21-39.
60. Elnour A, Hambraeus L, Eltom M, Dramaix M, Bourdoux P: Endemic goiter with iodine sufficiency: a possible role for the consumption of pearl millet in the etiology of endemic goiter. Am J Clin Nutr 2000;71:59-66. (Pubitemid 30033585)
61. Milerova J, Cerovska J, Zamrazil V, Bilek R, Lapcik O, Hampl R: Actual levels of soy phytoestrogens in children correlate with thyroid laboratory parameters. Clin Chem Lab Med 2006;44:171-174. (Pubitemid 43237960)
62. Messina M, Redmond G: Effects of soy protein and soybean isoflavones on thyroid function in healthy adults and hypothyroid patients: a review of the relevant literature. Thyroid 2006;16:249-258.
63. Knudsen N, Bulow I, Laurberg P, Ovesen L, Perrild H, Jorgensen T: Association of tobacco smoking with goiter in a low-iodine-intake area. Arch Intern Med 2002;162:439-443. (Pubitemid 34150646)
64. Davidsson L: Are vegetarians an 'at risk group' for iodine deficiency? Br J Nutr 1999;81:3-4. (Pubitemid 29084284)
65. Remer T, Neubert A, Manz F: Increased risk of iodine deficiency with vegetarian nutrition. Br J Nutr 1999;81:45-49. (Pubitemid 29084291)
66. Thomson CD, Woodruffe S, Colls A, Doyle TD: Urinary iodine and thyroid status of New Zealand residents; in Roussel AM, Anderson RA, Favier A (eds): Trace Elements in Man and Animals. New York, Kluwer Academic Press, 2000, vol 10, pp 343-344.
67. Hollowell JG, Staehling NW, Hannon WH, Flanders DW, Gunter EW, Maberly GF, Braverman LE, Pino S, Miller DT, Garbe PL, De Lozier DM, Jackson RJ: Iodine nutrition in the United States. Trends and public health implications: iodine excretion data from National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys I and III (1971-1974 and 1988-1994). J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1998;83:3401-3408. (Pubitemid 28500863)
68. Wolff J, Chaikoff IL, Goldberg M Jr: The temporary nature of the inhibitory action of excess iodine on organic iodine synthesis in the normal thyroid. Endocrinology 1949;45:504-513.
69. Eng PH, Cardona GR, Fang SL, Previti M, Alex S, Carrasco N, Chin WW, Braverman LE: Escape from the acute Wolff-Chaikoff effect is associated with a decrease in thyroid sodium/iodide symporter messenger ribonucleic acid and protein. Endocrinology 1999;140:3404-3410. (Pubitemid 30645394)
70. Roti E, degli Uberti E: Iodine excess and hyperthyroidism. Thyroid 2001;11:493-500. (Pubitemid 32494598)
71. Backer H, Hollowell J: Use of iodine for water disinfection: iodine toxicity and maximum recommended doses. Environ Health Perspect 2000;108:679-684.
72. Delange F, Benoist B, Pretell E, Dunn JT: Iodine deficiency in the world: where do we stand at the turn of the century. Thyroid 2001;11:437-447. (Pubitemid 32494593)
73. Zimmermann MB, Ito Y, Hess SY, Fujieda K, Molinari L: High thyroid volume in children with excess dietary iodine intakes. Am J Clin Nutr 2005;81:840-844. (Pubitemid 41724992)
74. Suzuki H, Higuchi T, Sawa K, Ohtaki S, Horiuchi Y: 'Endemic coast goiter' in Hokkaido, Japan. Acta Endocrinol (Copenh) 1965;50:161-176.
75. Li M, Liu DR, Qu CY, Zhang PY, Qian QD, Zhang CD, Jia QZ, Wang HX, Eastman CJ, Boyages SC: Endemic goiter in Central China caused by excessive iodine intake. Lancet 1987;i:257-259.
76. Zhao J, Chen Z, Maberly G: Iodine-rich drinking water of natural origin in China. Lancet 1998;352:2024. (Pubitemid 29000891)
77. Mizukami Y, Michigishi T, Nonomura A, Hashimoto T, Tonami N, Matsubara F, Takazakura E: Iodine-induced hypothyroidism: a clinical and histological study of 28 patients. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1993;76:466-471. (Pubitemid 23073075)
78. Boyages SC, Bloot AM, Maberly GF, Eastman CJ, Li M, Qian QD, Liu DR, van der Gaag RD, Drexhage HA: Thyroid autoimmunity in endemic goiter caused by excessive iodine intake. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 1989;31:453-465. (Pubitemid 19238228)
79. Braverman LE: Iodine and the thyroid: 33 years of study Thyroid 1994;4:351-356.
80. Nishiyama S, Mikeda T, Okada T, Nakamura K, Kotani T, Hishinuma A: Transient hypothyroidism or persistent hyperthyroxinemia in neonates born to mothers with excessive iodine intake. Thyroid 2004;14:1077-1083. (Pubitemid 40076134)
81. Costigan DC, Holland FJ, Daneman D, Hesslein PS, Vogel M, Ellis G: Amiodarone therapy effects in childhood thyroid function. Pediatrics 1986;77:703-708. (Pubitemid 16107033)
82. Nauman J, Wolff J: Iodide prophylaxis in Poland after the Chernobyl reactor accident: benefits and risks. Am J Med 1993;94:524-532. (Pubitemid 23142969)
83. Azizi F, Bentley D, Vagenakis A, Portnay G, Bush JE, Shwachman H, Ingbar SH, Braverman LE: Abnormal thyroid function and response to iodides in patients with cystic fibrosis. Trans Assoc Am Physicians 1974;87:111-119.
84. Alexandrides T, Georgopoulos N, Yarmenitis S, Vagenakis AG: Increased sensitivity to the inhibitory effect of excess iodide on thyroid function in patients with beta-thalassemia major and iron overload and the subsequent development of hypothyroidism. Eur J Endocrinol 2000;143:319-325.
85. Zois C, Stavrou I, Kalogera C, Svarna E, Dimoliatis I, Seferiadis K, Tsatsoulis A: High prevalence of autoimmune thyroiditis in schoolchildren after elimination of iodine deficiency in northwestern Greece. Thyroid 2003;13:485-489. (Pubitemid 36750559)
86. Zois C, Stavrou I, Svarna E, Seferiadis K, Tsatsoulis A: Natural course of autoimmune thyroiditis after elimination of iodine deficiency in northwestern Greece. Thyroid 2006;16:289-293.
87. Premawardhana LDKE, Parkes AB, Mazziotti G, Lazarus JH: Autoimmune thyroiditis after elimination of iodine deficiency in Sri Lanka (letter to the Editor). Thyroid 2003;13:1187.
88. Mazziotti G, Premawardhana LDKE, Parkes AB, Adams H, Smyth PP, Smith DF, Kaluarachi WN, Wijeyaratne CN, Jayasinghe A, de Silva DG, Lazarus JH: Evolution of thyroid autoimmunity during iodine prophylaxis: the Sri Lankan experience. Eur J Endocrinol 2003;149:103-110. (Pubitemid 36987151)
89. Premawardhana LD, Parkes AB, Smyth PP, Wijeyaratne CN, Jayasinghe A, de Silva DG, Lazarus JH: Increased prevalence of thyroglobulin antibodies in Sri Lankan schoolgirlsis iodine the cause? Eur J Endocrinol 2000;143:185-188. (Pubitemid 30622351)
90. Tsatsoulis A, Johnson EO, Andricula M, Kalogera C, Svarna E, Spyroy P, Seferiadis K, Tsolas O: Thyroid autoimmunity is associated with higher urinary iodine concentrations in an iodinedeficient area of Northwestern Greece. Thyroid 1999;9:279-283. (Pubitemid 29171778)
91. Marwaha RK, Tandon N, Gupta N, Karak AK, Verma K, Kochupillai N: Residual goiter in the postiodization phase: iodine status, thiocyanate exposure and autoimmunity. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2003;59:672-681. (Pubitemid 37491570)
92. Clugston GA, Dulberg EM, Pondow CS, Tilden RL: Iodine deficiency disorders in South east Asia; in Hetrer BS, Dun JT, Stanbury JB (eds): The Prevention and Control of Iodine Deficiency Disorders. Amsterdam, Elsevier, 1987, pp 273-308.
93. Ibbertson HK: Endemic goitre and cretinism. Clin Endocrinol Metab 1979;8:97-128. (Pubitemid 9126102)
94. L'Allemand D, Gruters A, Heidmann P, Schumbrand P: Iodine-induced alterations of thyroid function in neubron infants after prenatal and perinatal exposure to providone iodine. J Pediatr 1983;102:935-938. (Pubitemid 13058800)