"Applied Science": A phrase in search of a meaning

ISIS

Volumn 103, Issue 3, 2012, Pages 537-545

  Bud, Robert ^a  

^a SCIENCE MUSEUM   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

HISTORY; LITERATURE; NOMENCLATURE; NOTE; SCIENCE; TECHNOLOGY; UNITED KINGDOM;

GREAT BRITAIN; HISTORY, 19TH CENTURY; LITERATURE; SCIENCE; TECHNOLOGY; TERMINOLOGY AS TOPIC;

EID: 84869415875     PISSN: 00211753     EISSN: 15456994     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1086/667977     Document Type: Note

References (61)

1. "Sir Josiah Mason's Science College," Birmingham Daily Post, 2 Oct. 1880.
2. Robert Bud and Gerrylynn K. Roberts, Science versus Practice: Chemistry in Victorian Britain (Manchester: Manchester Univ. Press, 1984).
3. Bud and Roberts, "Thinking about Science and Practice in British Education: The Victorian Roots of a Modern Dichotomy," in Industry and Higher Education, ed. P. W. G. Wright (Milton Keynes: Open Univ. Press, 1990), pp. 18-30.
4. J. F. Donnelly, "Representations of Applied Science: Academics and Chemical Industry in Late Nineteenth-Century England," Social Studies of Science, 1986, 16:195-234.
5. Christoph Meinel, "Reine und Angewandte: Die Entstehung einer neuen Wissenschaftskonzeption in der Chemie der Auflkaerung," Berichte der Wissenschaftsgeschichte, 1985, 4:25-45.
6. Of the ten identified authors who used the phrase between 1784 and 1800, according to Google N-grams in December 2011, one was associated with Leipzig (Karl Heinrich Heydenreich), two with Halle (Johann Christoph Hoffbauer and Ludwig Heinrich von Jakob), and two with Jena (Johann Heinrich Gottlieb Heusinger and Paul Johann Anselm von Feuerbach).
7. Marie-Elisabeth Vopelius, "Jakob, Ludwig Heinrich von," in Neue Deutsche Biographie, Vol. 10 (1974), pp. 216-217.
8. Carl von Prantl, "Heusinger, Joh. Heinrich Gottlieb," in Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, Vol. 12 (1880), pp. 335-336.
9. Friedrich Merzbacher, "Feuerbach, Paul Johann Anselm Ritter von," in Neue Deutsche Biographie, Vol. 5 (1961), pp. 110-111.
10. D. Wood, "Novalis: Kant Studies (1797)," Philosophical Forum, 2001, 32:323-338.
11. Manfred Frank, The Philosophical Foundations of Early German Romanticism (Albany: SUNY Press, 2004); and http://www.manchester.edu/kant/bio/BioUniFrames.html.
12. Ludwig Heinrich Jakob, Grundriβ der allgemeinen Logik (Halle: Franke & Bespint, 1788), p. 4.
13. 'A rational doctrine of nature deserves the name of natural science only when the natural laws at its foundation are cognised a priori, and are not mere laws of experience. A natural cognition of the first kind is called pure, that of the second applied, rational cognition.'
14. Ernest Belfort Bax, Kant's Prolegomena and Metaphysical Foundations of Natural Science (London: Bell, 1891), p. 138.
15. Meyers Konversationslexikon (1894), Vol. 5, pp. 754-758.
16. Fritz Meyen, Johann Joachim Eschenburg 1743-1820 (Braunschweig: Waisenhaus, 1957).
17. Randall Collins, "A Micro-Macro Theory of Intellectual Creativity: The Case of German Idealist Philosophy," Sociological Theory, 1987, 5:47-69.
18. I should emphasize my indebtedness to the suggestive 'Introduction' by Alice Snyder to her edition of S. T. Coleridge's Treatise on Method, as Published in the Encyclopaedia Metropolitana (London: Constable, 1934).
19. Johann Joachim Eschenburg, Lehrbuch der Wissenschaftskunde: Ein Grundriss ncyclopaedischer Vorlesungen (Berlin: F. Nicolai, 1792).
20. Lothar Ehrlich and Georg Schmidt, eds., Ereignis Weimar-Jena: Gesellschaft und Kultur um 1800 im internationalen Kontext (Cologne: Böhlau, 2008).
21. Olaf Breidbach, "The Culture of Science and Experiments in Jena around 1800," in Hans Christian Ørsted and the Romantic Legacy in Science, ed. R. M. Brain, R. S. Cohen, and O. Knudsen (Dordrecht: Springer, 2007), pp. 177-216.
22. C. C. E. Schmid, Allgemeine Encyklopädie und Methodologie der Wissenschaften (Jena, 1811).
23. Snyder, ed., S. T. Coleridge's Treatise on Method (cit. n. 8).
24. Alice D. Snyder, "Coleridge and the Encyclopedists," Modern Philology, 1940, 38:173-191.
25. Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Lay Sermon Addressed to the Higher and Middle Classes on the Existing Distresses and Discontents (London: Gale & Fenner, J. M. Richardson, and J. Hatchard, 1817), p. 30.
26. A. S. Link, "Samuel Taylor Coleridge and the Economic and Political Crisis in Great Britain, 1816-1820," Journal of the History of Ideas, 1948, 9:323-338.
27. Snyder, ed., S. T. Coleridge's Treatise on Method (cit. n. 8), p. 55.
28. E. Smedley, Religio Clerici: A Churchman's First Epistle (London: Murray, 1819), p. 31.
29. R. Collison, "Samuel Taylor Coleridge and the 'Encyclopaedia Metropolitana,'" Journal of World History, 1966, 9:751-768.
30. Jack Morrell and Arnold Thackray, Gentlemen of Science: Early Years of the British Association for the Advancement of Science (Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 1981).
31. Charles Babbage, On the Economy of Machinery and Manufactures (London: Charles Knight, 1832), pp. 379-380.
32. 'Department of General Instruction in the Applied Sciences,' in 'Report from the Council to the Annual General Court... Held on Monday 28th April 1845,' bound in King's College Calendar 1844-45, King's College Archive Service, London.
33. The earliest examples of the phrase 'practical science' in the Gale collection of digitized newspapers are 'To the Author,' Whitehall Evening Post or London Intelligencer, 21 Apr. 1747; and 'House of Commons,' Morning Post, 21 Dec. 1813 (quotation). For the Adelaide Gallery and the Royal Polytechnic Institution.
34. Richard Daniel Altick, The Shows of London (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Univ. Press, 1978), pp. 376-387.
35. Jonathan Simon, Chemistry, Pharmacy, and Revolution in France, 1777-1809 (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2005).
36. Janis Langins, La République avait besoin de Savants: Les Débuts de l'Ecole Polytechnique, l'Ecole Centrale des Travaux publics et les Cours Révolutionnaires de l'An III (Paris: Belin, 1987).
37. "Assemblée Générale du 23 Messidor an XII," Bulletin de la Société d'Encouragement pour l'Industrie Nationale, 1804, 3:4.
38. Charles Dupin, Mémoires sur la Marine et les Ponts et Chaussées de France et d'Angleterre (Paris: Geury, 1818), pp. 67-69.
39. Liliane Pérez, "Technique, É conomie et Politique entre la France et l'Angleterre (XVIIe-XIXe siècles)," Documents pour l'Histoire des Techniques, 2010, 19:9-29.
40. Gareth Stedman Jones, "The Genesis of 'Industrial Revolution': Jean-Baptiste Say and the French Debate on Industrie," in Les Idées Passent-elles La Manche? Savoirs, Représentations, Pratiques (France-Angleterre, Xe-Xxe Siècles) ed. Jean-Philippe Genet and Franc ̧ois-Joseph Ruggiu (Paris: Presses de la Sorbonne, 2007), pp. 211-233.
41. Philip Lervig, "Sadi Carnot and the Steam Engine: Nicolas Clément's Lectures on Industrial Chemistry, 1823-28," British Journal for the History of Science, 1985, 18:147-196.
42. Nicolas Clément-Desormes, Cours de Chimie Appliquée aux Arts; ou, Analyse de Cours de Chimie Industrielle Professé au Conservatoire des Arts et Métiers, ed. by "un Auditeur," 2 vols. (Paris: Bachelier, 1829).
43. Théodore Olivier, Mémoires de Géométrie descriptive, théorique et appliqué (Paris, 1851), pp. 3-5.
44. Olivier, "Monge et l'É cole Polytechnique," Revue Scientifique et Industrielle, 1850, 7:64-68.
45. John Hubbel Weiss, The Making of Technological Man: The Social Origins of French Engineering Education (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1982).
46. Jean-Antoine Claude Chaptal, "Mes souvenirs sur Napoléon 1er," ed. A. Chaptal (Paris: Plon, Nourris, 1893), pp. 90-92.
47. René Tresse, "J. A. Chaptal et l'enseignement technique de 1800 à 1819," Revue d'Histoire des Sciences et de Leurs Applications, 1957, 10:167-174.
48. J. Payen, "The Role of the Conservatoire des Arts et Métiers in the Development of Technical Education up to the Middle of the Nineteenth Century," History and Technology, 1988, 5:315-321.
49. Robert Fox, "Education for a New Age: The Conservatoire des Arts et Métiers, 1815-30," in Artisan to Graduate: Essays to Commemorate the Foundation in 1824 of the Manchester Mechanics' Institution, Now in 1974 the University of Manchester Institute of Science and Technology, ed. D. S. L. Cardwell (Manchester: Manchester Univ. Press, 1974), pp. 23-38.
50. Jacob Horn and Margaret Jacob, "Jean-Antoine Chaptal and the Cultural Roots of French Industrialization," Technology and Culture, 1998, 39:671-698.
51. Jan Sebestik, "De la Technologie à la Technonomie: Gerard-Joseph Christian," Cahiers S.T.S., 1984, 2:256-269.
52. Among the first to affect such hybrids was the chemist J. F. W. Johnston, who began an 1843 article in Blackwood's Magazine with a pithy, much-to-be quoted sentence: 'Skilful practice is applied science.'
53. J. F. W. Johnston, "The Practice of Agriculture," Blackwood's Magazine, Apr. 1843, 53:415-432, on p. 415.
54. George Wilson to Dr. Andrews, 3 June 1856, MS 350/2/306, Science Museum Library, Swindon. Wilson nonetheless expressed his derogatory feelings toward the competing phrase in his inaugural lecture.
55. George Wilson, What Is Technology? An Inaugural Lecture (Edinburgh: Edinburgh Univ., 1855).
56. Wilbur Devereux Jones and Arvel B. Erickson, The Peelites, 1846-1857 (Columbus: Ohio State Univ. Press, 1972).
57. Bud and Roberts, Science versus Practice (cit. n. 2), p. 90.
58. David Brewster, "Whewell's History of the Inductive Sciences," Edinburgh Review, 1837, 66:110-151.
59. Robin Betts, "Persistent but Misguided? The Technical Educationists, 1867-89," History of Education, 1998, 27:267-277.
60. Bruno Belhoste and Konstantinos Chatzis, "From Technical Corps to Technocratic Power: French State Engineers and Their Professional and Cultural Universe in the First Half of the Nineteenth Century," History and Technology, 2007, 23:209-225.
61. Chatzis, "Theory and Practice in the Education of French Engineers from the Middle of the Eighteenth Century to the Present," Archives Internationales d'Histoire des Sciences, 2010, 60:43-78.