Intergroup cannibalism in the European Early Pleistocene: The range expansion and imbalance of power hypotheses

Journal of Human Evolution

Volumn 63, Issue 5, 2012, Pages 682-695

  Saladié, Palmira ^a,b,c   Huguet, Rosa ^a,b   Rodríguez Hidalgo, Antonio ^a,b,d   Cáceres, Isabel ^a,b   Esteban Nadal, Montserrat ^a,b   Arsuaga, Juan Luis ^e,f   Bermúdez de Castro, José María ^g   Carbonell, Eudald ^a,b,h  

^a INSTITUT CATALÀ DE PALEOECOLOGIA HUMANA I EVOLUCIÓ SOCIAL   (Spain)

^b UNIVERSITAT ROVIRA I VIRGILI   (Spain)

^c GQP CG   (Portugal)

^d Equipo Primeros Pobladores de Extremadura   (Spain)

^e UNIVERSIDAD COMPLUTENSE DE MADRID   (Spain)

^f INSTITUTO DE SALUD CARLOS III   (Spain)

^g CENTRO NACIONAL DE INVESTIGACIÓN SOBRE LA EVOLUCIÓN HUMANA CENIEH   (Spain)

^h INSTITUTE OF VERTEBRATE PALEONTOLOGY AND PALEOANTHROPOLOGY   (China)

Author keywords

Chimpanzees; Homo antecessor; Nutritional cannibalism; Spain; Taphonomy

Indexed keywords

AGE STRUCTURE; ARCHAEOLOGY; CANNIBALISM; HOMINID; HUNTER-GATHERER; PLEISTOCENE; RANGE EXPANSION; TAPHONOMY; TAXONOMY;

BURGOS [CASTILLA Y LEON]; CASTILLA Y LEON; GRAN DOLINA; SIERRA DE ATAPUERCA; SPAIN;

CERVIDAE; HOMO ANTECESSOR; PAN;

EID: 84867444368     PISSN: 00472484     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.jhevol.2012.07.004     Document Type: Article

References (119)

1. Andrews P., Fernández-Jalvo Y. Cannibalism in Britain: taphonomy of the Creswellian (Pleistocene) faunal and human remains from Gough's (Somerset, England). Bull. Nat. Hist. Mus. Geol. Ser. 2003, 58:59-81.
2. Arcadi A.C., Wrangham R.W. Infanticide in chimpanzees: review of cases and a new within-group observation from the Kanyawara study group in Kibale National Park. Primates 1999, 40:337-351.
3. Backwell L.R., d'Errico F. Evidence of termite foraging by Swartkrans early hominids. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U S A 2001, 98:1358-1363.
4. Bello S.M., Parfitt S.A., Stringer C.B. Earliest directly-dated human skull-cups. Plos One 2011, 6:e17026.
5. Berger G.W., Pérez-González A., Carbonell E., Arsuaga J.L., Bermúdez de Castro J.M., Ku T.L. Luminescence chronology of cave sediments at the Atapuerca paleoanthropological site. Spain. J. Hum. Evol. 2008, 55:300-311.
6. Bermúdez de Castro J.M., Arsuaga J.L., Carbonell E., Rosas A., Martínez I., Mosquera M. A hominid from the lower Pleistocene of Atapuerca, Spain: possible ancestor to Neanderthals and modern humans. Science 1997, 276:1392-1395.
7. Bermúdez de Castro J.M., Carbonell E., Cáceres I., Díez J.C., Fernández-Jalvo Y., Mosquera M., Ollé A., Rodríguez J., Rodríguez X.P., Rosas A., Rosell J., Sala R., Vergés J.M., Made J. van der The TD6 (Aurora stratum) hominid site. Final remarks and new questions. J. Hum. Evol. 1999, 37:695-700.
8. Bermúdez de Castro J.M., Carbonell E., Gómez A., Mateos A., Martinón-Torres M., Muela A., Rodríguez J., Sarmiento S., Varela S. Paleodemografía del hipodigma de fósiles de homininos del nivel TD6 de Gran Dolina (Sierra de Atapuerca, Burgos): estudio preliminar. Estud. Geol. 2006, 62:145-154.
9. Bermúdez de Castro J.M., Martinón-Torres M., Prado L., Gómez-Robles A., Rosell J., López-Polín L., Arsuaga J.L., Carbonell E. New immature hominin fossil from European Lower Pleistocene shows the earliest evidence of a modern human dental development pattern. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 2010, 102:5674-5678.
10. Bermúdez de Castro J.M., Pérez-González A., Martinón-Torres M., Gómez-Robles A., Rosell J., Prado L., Sarmiento S., Carbonell E. A new early Pleistocene hominin mandible from Atapuerca-TD6, Spain. J. Hum. Evol. 2008, 55:729-735.
11. Binford L.R. Bones: Ancient Men and Modern Myths 1981, Academic Press, New York.
12. Binford L.R. Faunal Remains from Klasies River Mouth 1984, Academic Press, New York.
13. Blumenschine R.J., Marean C.W., Capaldo S.D. Blind tests of inter-analyst correspondence and accuracy in the identification of cut marks, percussion marks, and carnivore tooth marks on bone surfaces. J. Archaeol. Sci. 1996, 23:493-507.
14. Blumenschine R.J., Selvaggio M.M. Percussion marks on bone surfaces as a new diagnostic of hominid behavior. Nature 1988, 333:763-765.
15. Boesch C. Hunting strategies of Gombe and Taï chimpanzees. Chimpanzee Cultures 1994, 77-92. Harvard University Press, Chicago. R. Wrangham, W.C. McGrew, F.B. Wall, P.G. Heltne (Eds.).
16. Boesch C. The Real Chimpanzee: Sex Strategies in the Forest 2009, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
17. Boesch C., Uehara S., Ihobe H. Variations in chimpanzee-red colobus interactions. Behavioural Diversity in Chimpanzees and Bonobos 2002, 221-230. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. C. Boesch, G. Hohmann, L. Marchant (Eds.).
18. Boone J. Comment on "intergroup aggression in chimpanzees and humans" (Manson, J.H., Wrangham, R.W.). Curr. Anthropol. 1991, 32:377.
19. Botella M.C., Alemán I., Jimenez S.A. Los Huesos Humanos. Manipulación y Alteraciones 2000, Edicions Bellaterra, Barcelona.
20. Botella M.C., Jiménez S.A., Alemán I., Souich P.D., Garcia C.J. Evidencias de canibalismo en el Neolítico Español. Actas del X Congreso de la Sociedad Española de Antropología Biológica 1997, 43-55. León.
21. Boulestin B. Approche taphonomique des restes humaines. Le cas des mésolithiques de la grotte des Perrats et le problème du cannibalisme en Préhistoire récente Européenne. BAR Int. Ser. 1999, 776:276.
22. Boulestin B., Zeeb-Lanz A., Jeunesse C., Haack F., Arbogast R.M., Denaire A. Mass cannibalism in the linear pottery cultures at Herxheim (Palatinate, Germany). Antiquity 2009, 83:968-982.
23. Burjachs F. Paleoecología del Homo antecessor: Palinología de las unidades TD5, 6 y 7 de la 'Gran Dolina' de Atapuerca (Burgos, Spain). XIII Simposio de la Asociación de Palinólogos en Lengua Española (A.P.L.E.) 2002, Universidad Politécnica de Cartagena, Cartagena.
24. Busse C.D. Do chimpanzees hunt cooperatively?. Am. Nat. 1978, 112:767-770.
25. Cáceres I., Lozano M., Saladié P. Evidence for Bronze Age cannibalism in El Mirador cave (Sierra de Atapuerca, Burgos, Spain). Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 2007, 133:899-917.
26. Carbonell E., Bermúdez de Castro J.M., Arsuaga J.L., Allue E., Bastir M., Benito A., Cáceres I., Canals A., Diez C., Made J. van der, Mosquera M., Ollé A., Pérez-González A., Rodríguez J., Rodríguez X.P., Rosas A., Rosell J., Sala R., Vallverdú J., Vergés J.M. An early Pleistocene hominin mandible from Atapuerca-TD6, Spain. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U S A 2005, 102:5674-5678.
27. Carbonell E., Cáceres I., Lozano M., Saladié P., Rosell J., Lorenzo C., Vallverdú J., Huguet R., Canals A., Bermúdez de Castro J.M. Cultural cannibalism as a paleoeconomic system in the European lower Pleistocene. Curr. Anthropol. 2010, 51:539-549.
28. Carbonell E., García-Antón D., Mallol C., Mosquera Martínez M., Ollé A., Rodríguez X.P., Sahnouni M., Sala R., Vergès J.M. The TD6 level lithic industry from Gran Dolina, Atapuerca (Burgos, Spain): production and use. J. Hum. Evol. 1999, 37:653-694.
29. Conklin B.A. Thus are our bodies, thus was our custom: mortuary cannibalism in an Amazonian society. Am. Ethnol 1995, 2:75-101.
30. Conklin B.A. Consuming Grief: Compassionate Cannibalism in an Amazonian Society 2001, University of Texas Press, Austin.
31. Cuenca-Bescós G., Canudo J.I., Laplana C. Análisis bioestratigráfico de los roedores del Pleistoceno medio del yacimiento de Galería (Sierra de Atapuerca, Burgos). Atapuerca: Ocupaciones Humanas y Paleoecología del Yacimiento de Galería 1999, 189-210. Junta de Castilla y León, Burgos. E. Carbonell, A. Rosas, J.C. Díez (Eds.).
32. Defleur A., White T., Valensi P., Slimak L., Crégut-Bonnoure E. Neanderthal cannibalism at Moula-Guercy, Ardèche, France. Science 1999, 286:128-131.
33. Domínguez-Rodrigo M. Hunting and scavenging by early humans: the state of the debate. J. World Prehist. 2002, 16:1-54.
34. Falguères C., Bahain J.J., Yokoyama Y., Arsuaga J.L., Bermúdez J.M., Carbonell E., Bischoff J.L., Dolo J.M. Earliest humans in Europe: the age of TD6 Gran Dolina, Atapuerca. Spain. J. Hum. Evol. 1999, 37:343-352.
35. Fausto C. Feasting on people eating animals and humans in Amazonia. Curr. Anthropol. 2007, 48:497-529.
36. Fernández-Jalvo Y., Díez J.C., Bermúdez de Castro J.M., Carbonell E., Arsuaga J.L. Evidence of early cannibalism. Science 1996, 271:277-278.
37. Fernández-Jalvo Y., Díez J.C., Cáceres I., Rosell J. Human cannibalism in the early Pleistocene of Europe (Gran Dolina, Sierra de Atapuerca, Spain). J. Hum. Evol. 1999, 37:591-622.
38. Fisher J.W. Bone surface modifications in zooarchaeology. J. Archaeol. Method Th 1995, 2:7-68.
39. Fruth B., Hohmann G. How bonobos handle hunts and harvest: why share food. Behavioural Diversity in Chimpanzees and Bonobos 2002, 231-243. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. C. Boesch, G. Hohmann, L. Marchant (Eds.).
40. García N. Osos y Otros Carnívoros de la Sierra de Atapuerca 2003, Fundación Oso de Asturias, Oviedo.
41. García N., Arsuaga J.L. Carnivores from the early Pleistocene hominid-bearing Trinchera Dolina 6 (Sierra de Atapuerca, Spain). J. Hum. Evol. 1999, 37:415-430.
42. García N., Arsuaga J.L. Les carnivores (Mammalia) des sites du Pléistocène ancien et moyen d'Atapuerca (Espagne). L'Anthropologie 2001, 105:83-93.
43. García-Antón M. Reconstrucciones de paleovegetación en Atapuerca según el análisis polínico. Atapuerca y la Evolución Humana 1998, 61-72. Fundación Ramón Areces, Madrid. E. Aguirre (Ed.).
44. Gilby I.C. Meat sharing among Gombe chimpanzees: harassment and reciprocal exchange. Anim. Behav. 2006, 71:953-963.
45. Gilby I.C., Connor R.C. The role of intelligence in group hunting: are chimpanzees different from other social predators?. The Mind of the Chimpanzee: Ecological and Experimental Perspectives 2010, 220-233. University of Chicago Press, Chicago. E.V. Lonsdorf, S.R. Ross, T. Matsuzawa (Eds.).
46. Gomes C.M., Boesch C. Wild chimpanzees exchange meat for sex on a long-term basis. Plos One 2009, 4:5116.
47. Goodall J. Infant killing and cannibalism in free-living chimpanzees. Folia Primatol. 1977, 28:259-282.
48. Goodall J. Life and death at Gombe. Natl. Geogr. 1979, 155:592-621.
49. Goodall J. The Chimpanzees of Gombe: Patterns of Behavior 1986, Belknap Press, Cambridge.
50. Goldman L. The Anthropology of Cannibalism 1999, Praeger, Westport.
51. Huguet, R., 2007. Primeras ocupaciones humanas en la Península Ibérica: paleoeconomía en la Sierra de Atapuerca (Burgos) y la Cuenca de Guadix-Baza (Granada) durante el Pleistoceno Inferior. Ph.D. Dissertation, Universitat Rovira i Virgili.
52. Hurlbut S.A. The taphonomy of cannibalism: a review of anthropogenic bone modification in the American Southwest. Int. J. Osteoarchaeol. 2000, 10:4-26.
53. Jelinek J. Anthropofagie a pohrebni ritus doby bronzove na podklade nálezu z moravy a zokolnich üzemi. Acta Mus. Morav. 1957, 42:1-133.
54. Kantner J. Anasazy mutilation and cannibalism in the American Southwest. The Anthropology of Cannibalism 1999, 75-104. Bergin & Garvey, London. L.R. Goldman (Ed.).
55. Lalueza-Fox C., Rosas A., Estalrrich A., Gigli E., Campos P.F., García-Tabernero A., García-Vargas S., Sánchez-Quinto F., Ramírez O., Civit S., Bastir M., Huguet R., Santamaría D., Thomas M., Gilbert P., Willerslev E., de la Rasilla M. Genetic evidence for patrilocal mating behavior among Neandertal groups. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U S A 2011, 108:250-253.
56. Lyman R.L. Quantitative Paleozoology 2008, Cambridge University Press, New York.
57. Made J. van der Les ongulés d'Atapuerca. Stratigraphie et biogéographie. L'Anthropologie 2001, 105:95-113.
58. Manson J.H., Wrangham R.W. Intergroup aggression in chimpanzees and humans. Curr. Anthropol. 1991, 32:369-390.
59. Mariani-Constantini R., Ottini L., Caramiello S., Palmirotta R., Mallegni F., Rossi A., Frati L., Capasso L. Taphonomy of the fossil hominid bones from the Acheulean site of Castel di Guido near Rome. Italy. J. Hum. Evol. 2001, 41:211-225.
60. McCallum C. Morte e pessoa entre os Kaxinawá. Mana 1996, 2:19-84.
61. Mitani J.C., Watts D.P. Why do chimpanzees hunt and share meat?. Anim. Behav. 2001, 61:915-924.
62. Mitani J.C., Watts D.P., Amsler S.J. Lethal intergroup aggression leads to territorial expansion in wild chimpanzees. Curr. Biol. 2010, 20:507-508.
63. Newton-Fisher N. Infant killers of Budongo. Folia Primatol. 1999, 70:167-169.
64. Nilssen, P.J., 2000. An actualistic butchery study in South Africa and its implications for reconstructing hominid strategies of carcass acquisition and butchery in the Upper Pleistocene and Plio-Pleistocene. Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Cape Town.
65. Nishida T. Review of recent findings on Mahale chimpanzees: implications and future research directions. Chimpanzee Cultures 1994, 373-396. Harvard University Press, Cambridge. R.W. Wrangham, W.C. McGrew, F.B.M. de Waal, P.G. Heltne (Eds.).
66. Nishida T., Kawanaka K. Within-group cannibalism by adult male chimpanzees. Primates 1985, 26:274-284.
67. Nishida T., Uehara S., Nyundo R. Predatory behavior among wild chimpanzees of the Mahale Mountains. Primates 1979, 20:1-20.
68. Norikoshi K. One observed case of cannibalism among wild chimpanzees of the Mahale Mountains. Primates 1982, 23:66-74.
69. Parés J.M., Pérez-González A. Paleomagnetic age for hominid fossils at Atapuerca archaeological site, Spain. Science 1995, 269:830-832.
70. Parés J.M., Pérez-González A. Magnetochronology and stratigraphy at Gran Dolina section, Atapuerca (Burgos, Spain). J. Hum. Evol. 1999, 37:325-342.
71. Pickering M. Consuming doubts: what some people ate? Or what some people swallowed. The Anthropology of Cannibalism 1999, 51-74. Bergin & Garvey, London. L.R. Goldman (Ed.).
72. Pickering T.R., Wallis J. Bone modifications resulting from captive chimpanzee mastication: implications for the interpretation of Pliocene archaeological faunas. J. Archaeol. Sci. 1997, 24:1115-1127.
73. Pickering T.R., White T.D., Toth N. Cutmarks on a Plio-Pleistocene hominid from Sterkfontein, South Africa. Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 2000, 111:579-584.
74. Pobiner B.L., Rogers M.J., Monahan C.M., Harris J.W.K. New evidence for hominin carcass processing strategies at 1.5 Ma, Koobi Fora, Kenya. J. Hum. Evol. 2008, 55:103-130.
75. Potter J.M., Chuipka J.P. Perimortem mutilation of human remains in an early village in the American Southwest: a case for ethnic violence. J. Anthropol. Archaeol. 2010, 29:507-523.
76. Pusey A.E., Murray C.M., Wallauer W., Wilson M., Wroblewski E.E. Severe aggression among female chimpanzees at Gombe National Park, Tanzania. Int. J. Primatol. 2008, 29:949-973.
77. Rautman A.E., Fenton T.W. A case of historic cannibalism in the American West: implications for southwestern archaeology. Am. Antiquity 2005, 70:321-341.
78. Rodríguez J., Burjachs F., Cuenca-Bescós G., García N., Made J., van der, Pérez-González A., Blain H.A., Expósito I., López-García J.M., García-Antón D., Allué E., Cáceres I., Huguet R., Mosquera M., Ollé A., Rosell J., Parés J.M., Rodríguez X.P., Díez J.C., Rofes J., Sala R., Saladié P., Vallverdú J., Bennàsar M., Blasco R., Bermúdez de Castro J.M., Carbonell E. One million years of cultural evolution in a stable environment at Atapuerca (Burgos, Spain). Quatern. Sci. Rev. 2011, 30:1396-1412.
79. Rosas A., Estalrrich A., García-Tabernero A., Bastir M., García Vargas S., Sánchez-Meseguer A., Huguet R., Lallueza-Fox C., Peña-Melián A., Kranioti E.F., Santamaría D., de la Rasilla M., Fortea J. Les Néandertaliens d'El Sidrón (Asturies, Espagne). Actualisation d'un nouvel échantillon. L'Anthropologie 2012, 116:57-76.
80. Rosas A., Martinez-Maza C., Bastir M., Garcia-Tabernero A., Lalueza-Fox C., Huguet R., Ortiz J.E., Julia R., Soler V., de Torres T., Martinez E., Canaveras J.C., Sanchez-Moral S., Cuezva S., Lario J., Santamaria D., de la Rasilla M., Fortea J. Paleobiology and comparative morphology of a late Neandertal sample from El Sidron, Asturias, Spain. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U S A 2006, 103:19266-19271.
81. Rosell, J., 2001. Patrons d'aprofitament de les biomasses animals durant el Pleistocè Inferior i Mig (Sierra de Atapuerca, Burgos) i Superior (Abric Romaní, Barcelona). Ph.D. Dissertation, Universitat Rovira i Virgili.
82. Russell M.D. Mortuary practices at the Krapina Neandertal site. Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 1987, 72:381-397.
83. Russell M.D., LeMort F. Cutmarks on the Engis 2 calvaria?. Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 1986, 69:317-323.
84. Saladié, P., 2009. Mossegades d'omnívors. Aproximació experimental i aplicació zooarqueològica als jaciments de la Sierra de Atapuerca. Ph.D. Dissertation, Universitat Rovira i Virgili.
85. Saladié P., Huguet R., Díez C., Rosell J., Cáceres I., Rodríguez-Hidalgo A., Vallverdú J., Bermúdez de Castro J.M., Carbonell E. Carcass transport decisions in Homo antecessor subsistence strategies. J. Hum. Evol. 2011, 61:425-446.
86. Sanday P.R. Divine Hunger: Cannibalism as a Cultural System 1986, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
87. Schiffer M.B. Formation Processes of the Archaeological Record 1987, University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City.
88. Scott J.E., Marean C.W. Paleolithic hominin remains from Eshkaft-e Gavi (southern Zagros Mountains, Iran): description, affinities, and evidence for butchery. J. Hum. Evol. 2009, 57:248-259.
89. Sherrow H.M., Amsler S.J. New intercommunity infanticides by the chimpanzees of Ngogo, Kibale National Park, Uganda. Int. J. Primatol. 2007, 28:9-21.
90. Shipman P., Rose J. Early hominid hunting, butchering, and carcass-processing behaviors: approaches to the fossil record. J. Anthropol. Archaeol. 1983, 2:57-98.
91. Stanford C.B. The influence of chimpanzee predation on group size and anti-predator behaviour in red colobus monkeys. Anim. Behav. 1995, 49:577-587.
92. Stanford C.B. The hunting ecology of wild chimpanzees: implications for the evolutionary ecology of Pliocene hominids. Am. Anthropol. 1996, 98:96-113.
93. Stanford C.B. The social behavior of chimpanzees and bonobos: empirical evidence and shifting assumptions. Curr. Anthropol. 1998, 39:399-420.
94. Stanford C.B. A comparison of social meat-foraging by chimpanzees and human foragers. Meat-Eating and Human Evolution 2001, 122-140. Oxford University Press, New York. C.B. Stanford, H. Bunn (Eds.).
95. Suzuki A. Carnivory and cannibalism observed among forest living chimpanzees. J. Anthropol. Soc. Jpn. 1971, 79:30-48.
96. Takahata Y. Adult male chimpanzees kill and eat a male newborn infant: newly observed intragroup infanticide in Mahale Mountain National Park, Tanzania. Folia Primatol. 1985, 44:161-170.
97. Teleki G. The Predatory Behavior of Wild Chimpanzees 1973, Bucknell University Press, Lewisburg.
98. Trinkaus E. Cannibalism and burial at Krapina. J. Hum. Evol. 1985, 14:203-216.
99. Trinkaus E., Zimmerman M.R. Trauma among the Shanidar Neandertals. Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 1982, 57:61-67.
100. Turner C.G. Taphonomic reconstructions of human violence and cannibalism based on mass burials in the American Southwest. Carnivores, Human Scavengers, and Predators: A Question of Bone Technology 1983, 219-240. University of Calgary Archaeological Association, Calgary. G.M. Lemoine, A.S. MacEachern (Eds.).
101. Turner C.G., Turner J.A. The first claim for cannibalism in the Southwest: Walter Hough's 1901 discovery at Canyon Butte Ruin 3, Northeastern Arizona. Am. Antiquity 1992, 57:661-682.
102. Turner C.G., Turner J.A. Man Corn: Cannibalism and Violence in the Prehistoric American Southwest 1999, The University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City.
103. Viláça A. Relations between funerary cannibalism and warfare cannibalism: the question of predation. Ethnos 2000, 65:83-106.
104. Villa P., Bouville C., Courtin J., Helmer D., Mahieu E., Shipman P., Belluomini G., Branca M. Cannibalism in the Neolithic. Science 1986, 233:431-437.
105. Watts D.P. Scavenging by chimpanzees at Ngogo and the relevance of chimpanzee scavenging to early hominin behavioral ecology. J. Hum. Evol. 2008, 54:125-133.
106. Watts D.P., Mitani J.C. Infanticide and cannibalism by male chimpanzees at Ngogo, Kibale National Park, Uganda. Primates 2000, 41:357-365.
107. Watts D.P., Mitani J.C., Sherrow H.M. New cases of inter-community infanticide by male chimpanzees at Ngogo, Kibale National Park, Uganda. Primates 2002, 43:263-270.
108. Watts D.P., Muller M.N., Amsler S.J., Mbabazi G., Mitani J.C. Lethal intergroup aggression by chimpanzees in Kibale National Park, Uganda. Am. J. Primatol. 2006, 68:161-180.
109. White T.D. Cut marks on the Bodo cranium: a case of prehistoric defleshing. Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 1986, 69:503-509.
110. White T.D. Prehistoric Cannibalism at Mancos 5MTUMR-2346 1992, Princeton University Press, Princeton.
111. White T.D., Toth N. Engis: preparation damage, not ancient cutmarks. Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 1989, 78:361-367.
112. White T.D., Toth N. The question of ritual cannibalism at Grotta Guattari. Curr. Anthropol. 1991, 32:118-138.
113. Williams J.M., Oehlert G., Carlis J., Pusey A.E. Why do male chimpanzees defend a group range? Reassessing male territoriality. Anim. Behav. 2004, 68:523-532.
114. Wilson M., Kahlenberg S.M., Wells M., Wrangham R.W. Ecological and social factors affect the occurrence and outcomes of intergroup encounters in chimpanzees. Anim. Behav. 2012, 83:277-291.
115. Wilson M.L., Wallauer W.R., Pusey A.E. New cases of intergroup violence among chimpanzees in Gombe National Park, Tanzania. Int. J. Primatol. 2004, 25:523-549.
116. Wilson M.L., Wrangham R. Intergroup relations in chimpanzees. A. Rev. Anthropol. 2003, 32:363-392.
117. Wrangham R.W. Evolution of coalitionary killing. Yearb. Phys. Anthropol. 1999, 42:1-30.
118. Wrangham R.W., Wilson M.L., Muller M.N. Comparative rates of violence in chimpanzees and humans. Primates 2006, 47:14-26.
119. Zollikofer C.P.E., Ponce de León M.S., Vandermeersch B., Lévêque F. Evidence for interpersonal violence in the St. Césaire Neanderthal. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 2002, 99:6444-6448.