Urban Physics: Effect of the micro-climate on comfort, health and energy demand

Frontiers of Architectural Research

Volumn 1, Issue 3, 2012, Pages 197-228

  Moonen, Peter ^a,b   Defraeye, Thijs ^c   Dorer, Viktor ^b   Blocken, Bert ^d   Carmeliet, Jan ^a,b  

^a ETH ZURICH   (Switzerland)

^b SWISS FEDERAL LABORATORIES FOR MATERIALS SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY   (Switzerland)

^c UNIVERSITY OF LEUVEN   (Belgium)

^d EINDHOVEN UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY   (Netherlands)

Author keywords

Computational fluid dynamics (CFD); Energy demand; Field experiments; Numerical simulations; Pollutant dispersion; Thermal comfort; Wind comfort; Wind tunnel experiments; Wind driven rain

Indexed keywords

EID: 84867382364     PISSN: 20952635     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.foar.2012.05.002     Document Type: Review

References (354)

1. Abuku M., Blocken B., Nore K., Thue J.V., Carmeliet J., Roels S. On the validity of numerical wind-driven rain simulation on a rectangular low-rise building under various oblique winds. Building and Environment 2009, 44(3):621-632.
2. Abuku M., Blocken B., Roels S. Moisture response of building facades to wind-driven rain: field measurements compared with numerical simulations. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics 2009, 97(5-6):197-207.
3. Ahmad K., Khare M., Chaudhry K.K. Wind tunnel simulation studies on dispersion at urban street canyons and intersections-a review. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics 2005, 93(9):697-717.
4. Albanakis C., Bouris D. 3D conjugate heat transfer with thermal radiation in a hollow cube exposed to external flow. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 2008, 51(25-26):6157-6168.
5. Alexandri E., Jones P. Temperature decreases in an urban canyon due to green walls and green roofs in diverse climates. Building and Environment 2008, 43(4):480-493.
6. Alinot C., Masson C. k-ε model for the atmospheric boundary layer under various thermal stratifications. Transactions of the ASME: Journal of Solar Energy Engineering 2005, 127(4):438-443.
7. Ali-Toudert F., Mayer H. Numerical study on the effects of aspect ratio and orientation of an urban street canyon on outdoor thermal comfort in hot and dry climate. Building and Environment 2006, 41:94-108.
8. Allegrini, J., Dorer, V., Carmeliet, J., 2011. Influence on the urban microclimate on the energy demand of buildings. In: Cisbat11 conference, 14-16 September 2011. Lausanne, Switzerland.
9. Allegrini J., Dorer V., Defraeye T., Carmeliet J. An adaptive temperature wall function for mixed convective flows at exterior surfaces of buildings in street canyons. Building and Environment 2012, 49:55-66.
10. Allwine, K.J., Leach, M.J., Stockham, L.W., Shinn, J.S., Hosker, R.P., Bowers, J.F., Pace, J.C., 2004. Overview of Joint Urban 2003-an atmospheric dispersion study in Oklahoma City. Preprints, 84th AMS Annual Meeting. Seattle, WA. Americon Meteorological Society. J7.1.
11. Ansumali S., Karlin I.V. Stabilization of the lattice Boltzmann method by the H theorem: a numerical test. Physical Review E 2000, 62(6):7999-8003.
12. Arazi A., Sharon D., Khain A., Huss A., Mahrer Y. The windfield and rainfall distribution induced within a small valley: field observations and 2-D numerical modelling. Boundary-Layer Meteorology 1997, 83(3):349-374.
13. Arnold S., ApSimon H., Barlow J., Belcher S., Bell M., Boddy D., Britter R., Cheng H., Clark R., Colvile R., Dimitroulopoulou S., Dobre A., Greally B., Kaur S., Knights A., Lawton T., Makepeace A., Martin D., Neophytou M., Neville S., Nieuwenhuijsen M., Nickless G., Price C., Robins A., Shallcross D., Simmonds P., Smalley R., Tate J., Tomlin A., Wang H., Walsh P. Introduction to the DAPPLE air pollution project. Science of the Total Environment 2004, 332(1-3):139-153.
14. ASHRAE Standard 55, 2010. Thermal environmental conditions for human occupancy. American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning.
15. ASHRAE, 1999. Building air intake and exhaust design. ASHRAE Application Handbook. Atlanta, (Chapter 43).
16. ASHRAE, 2003. Building air intake and exhaust design. ASHRAE Application Handbook. Atlanta, (Chapter 44).
17. Baik J.J., Park S.B., Kim J.J. Urban flow and dispersion simulation using a CFD model coupled to a mesoscale model. Journal of Applied Meteorology and Climatology 2009, 48(8):1667-1681.
18. Balaji C., Hölling M., Herwig H. A temperature wall function for turbulent mixed convection from vertical, parallel plate channels. International Journal of Thermal Sciences 2008, 47(6):723-729.
19. Balczo M., Gromke C., Ruck B. Numerical modeling of flow and pollutant dispersion in street canyons with tree planting. Meterologische Zeitschrift 2009, 18(2):197-206.
20. Banks, D., Meroney, R.N., Petersen, R.L., Carter, J.J., 2003. Evaluation of FLUENT for predicting concentrations on buildings. In: A&WMA Conference, San Diego, CA. Paper # 70223.
21. Barad, M.L., 1958. Project prairie grass. A field programme in diffusion. Geophysical Research Paper, no. 59, vols. I and II. Report AFCRC-TR-58-235. Air Force Cambridge Research Center, Bedford, MA.
22. Barlow J.B., Rae W.H., Pope A. Low-Speed Wind Tunnel Testing 1999, John Wiley & Sons.
23. Barmpas F., Bouris D., Moussiopoulos N. 3D numerical simulation of the transient thermal behaviour of a simplified building envelope under external flow. Journal of Solar Energy Engineering 2009, 131(3):031001.1-031001.12.
24. Baskaran A., Kashef A. Investigation of air flow around buildings using computational fluid dynamics techniques. Engineering Structures 1996, 18(11):861-875.
25. Baskaran A., Stathopoulos T. Computational evaluation of wind effects on buildings. Building and Environment 1989, 24(4):325-333.
26. Bechmann, A., Sorensen, N., Johansen, J., 2007. Atmospheric flow over terrain using hybrid RANS/LES. In: Proceedings of the European Wind Energy Conference and Exhibition (EWEC 2007), Milan, Italy.
27. Bechmann, A., 2006. Large-Eddy Simulation of atmospheric flow over complex terrain, Ph.D. Thesis. Technical University of Denmark, Denmark.
28. Beranek W.J., Van Koten H. Beperken van windhinder om gebouwen, deel 1, Stichting Bouwresearch no. 65 1979, Kluwer Technische Boeken BV, Deventer, (in Dutch).
29. Beranek W.J. Beperken van windhinder om gebouwen, deel 2, Stichting Bouwresearch no. 90 1982, Kluwer Technische Boeken BV, Deventer, (in Dutch).
30. Beranek W.J. Wind environment around single buildings of rectangular shape. Heron 1984, 29(1):4-31.
31. Beranek W.J. Wind environment around building configurations. Heron 1984, 29(1):33-70.
32. Bezpalcova, K., 2007. Physical modelling of flow and dispersion in an urban canopy. Ph.D. Thesis. Faculty of Mathematics and Physics. Charles University, Prague, Czech Republic.
33. Biltoft, C.A., 2001. Customer Report for Mock Urban Setting Test. DPG Document no. WDTCFR-01-121, West Desert Test Center. U.S. Army Dugway Proving Ground, Dugway, Utah.
34. Blocken B., Abuku M., Nore K., Briggen P.M., Schellen H.L., Thue J.V., Roels S., Carmeliet J. Intercomparison of wind-driven rain deposition models based on two case studies with full-scale measurements. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics 2011, 99(4):448-459.
35. Blocken B., Carmeliet J., Poesen J. Numerical simulation of the wind-driven rainfall distribution over small-scale topography in space and time. Journal of Hydrology 2005, 315(1-4):252-273.
36. Blocken B., Carmeliet J., Stathopoulos T. CFD evaluation of wind speed conditions in passages between parallel buildings-effect of wall-function roughness modifications for the atmospheric boundary layer flow. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics 2007, 95(9-11):941-962.
37. Blocken B., Carmeliet J. Spatial and temporal distribution of driving rain on a low-rise building. Wind and Structures 2002, 5(5):441-462.
38. Blocken B., Carmeliet J. Pedestrian wind environment around buildings: literature review and practical examples. Journal of Thermal Envelope and Building Science 2004, 28(2):107-159.
39. Blocken B., Carmeliet J. A review of wind-driven rain research in building science. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics 2004, 92(13):1079-1130.
40. Blocken B., Carmeliet J. High-resolution wind-driven rain measurements on a low-rise building-experimental data for model development and model validation. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics 2005, 93(12):905-928.
41. Blocken B., Carmeliet J. The influence of the wind-blocking effect by a building on its wind-driven rain exposure. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics 2006, 94(2):101-127.
42. Blocken B., Carmeliet J. On the accuracy of wind-driven rain measurements on buildings. Building and Environment 2006, 41(12):1798-1810.
43. Blocken B., Carmeliet J. Validation of CFD simulations of wind-driven rain on a low-rise building facade. Building and Environment 2007, 42(7):2530-2548.
44. Blocken B., Carmeliet J. Pedestrian wind conditions at outdoor platforms in a high-rise apartment building: generic sub-configuration validation, wind comfort assessment and uncertainty issues. Wind and Structures 2008, 11(1):51-70.
45. Blocken B., Carmeliet J. Overview of three state-of-the-art wind-driven rain assessment models and comparison based on model theory. Building and Environment 2010, 45(3):691-703.
46. Blocken B., Defraeye T., Derome D., Carmeliet J. High-resolution CFD simulations for forced convective heat transfer coefficients at the facade of a low-rise building. Building and Environment 2009, 44(12):2396-2412.
47. Blocken B., Deszö G., van Beeck J., Carmeliet J. Comparison of calculation methods for wind-driven rain deposition on building facades. Atmospheric Environment 2010, 44(14):1714-1725.
48. Blocken B., Janssen W.D., van Hooff T. CFD simulation for pedestrian wind comfort and wind safety in urban areas: general decision framework and case study for the Eindhoven University campus. Environmental Modelling & Software 2012, 30:15-34.
49. Blocken B., Moonen P., Stathopoulos T., Carmeliet J. A numerical study on the existence of the venturi-effect in passages between perpendicular buildings. Journal of Engineering Mechanics-ASCE 2008, 134(12):1021-1028.
50. Blocken B., Persoon J. Pedestrian wind comfort around a large football stadium in an urban environment: CFD simulation, validation and application of the new Dutch wind nuisance standard. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics 2009, 97(5-6):255-270.
51. Blocken B., Poesen J., Carmeliet J. Impact of wind on the spatial distribution of rain over micro-scale topography-numerical modelling and experimental verification. Hydrological Processes 2006, 20(2):345-368.
52. Blocken B., Roels S., Carmeliet J. A combined CFD-HAM approach for wind-driven rain on building facades. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics 2007, 95(7):585-607.
53. Blocken B., Roels S., Carmeliet J. Modification of pedestrian wind comfort in the silvertop tower passages by an automatic control system. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics 2004, 92(10):849-873.
54. Blocken B., Stathopoulos T., Carmeliet J., Hensen J.L.M. Application of CFD in building performance simulation for the outdoor environment: an overview. Journal of Building Performance Simulation 2011, 4(2):157-184.
55. Blocken B., Stathopoulos T., Carmeliet J. CFD simulation of the atmospheric boundary layer: wall function problems. Atmospheric Environment 2007, 41:238-252.
56. Blocken B., Stathopoulos T., Saathoff P., Wang X. Numerical evaluation of pollutant dispersion in the built environment: comparisons between models and experiments. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics 2008, 96(10-11):1817-1831.
57. Blocken B., van Hooff T., Aanen L., Bronsema B. Computational analysis of the performance of a venturi-shaped roof for natural ventilation: venturi-effect versus wind-blocking effect. Computers & Fluids 2011, 48(1):202-213.
58. Bossert, J.E., Linn R.R., Reisner J.M., Smith S., Winterkamp J. 2001. Advances in microscale atmospheric modeling. In: Earth and Environmental Sciences Progress Report 1998-2000 (LA-13825-PR). Los Alamos National Laboratory, pp. 64-68.
59. Bottema, M., 1993. Wind climate and urban geometry. Ph.D. Thesis. Eindhoven University of Technology, 212p.
60. Bouyer J., Inard C., Musy M. Microclimatic coupling as a solution to improve building energy simulation in an urban context. Energy and Buildings 2011, 43(7):1549-1559.
61. Bozonnet E., Belarbi R., Allard F. Thermal behaviour of buildings: modelling the impact of urban heat island. Journal of Harbin Institute of Technology (New Series) 2007, 14:19-22.
62. Briggen P.M., Blocken B., Schellen H.L. Wind-driven rain on the facade of a monumental tower: Numerical simulation, full-scale validation and sensitivity analysis. Building and Environment 2009, 44(8):1675-1690.
63. Brunekreef B., Holgate S.T. Air pollution and health. The Lancet 2002, 360(9341):1233-1242.
64. Bruse M., Fleer H. Simulating surface-plant-air interactions inside urban environments with a three dimensional numerical model. Environmental Modelling and Software 1998, 13(3):373-384.
65. Bruse, M., 2009. Analysing human outdoor thermal comfort and open space usage with the Multi-Agent System BOTworld. In: Seventh International Conference on Urban Climate ICUC-7. 29 June-3 July 2009, Yokohama, Japan.
66. Bu Z., Kato S., Ishida Y., Huang H. New criteria for assessing local wind environment at pedestrian level based on exceedance probability analysis. Building and Environment 2009, 44(7):1501-1508.
67. Buccolieri R., Gromke C., Di Sabatino S., Ruck B. Aerodynamic effects of trees on pollutant concentration in street canyons. Science of the Total Environment 2009, 407:5247-5256.
68. Camuffo D., Del Monte M., Sabbioni C., Vittori O. Wetting, deterioration and visual features of stone surfaces in an urban area. Atmospheric Environment 1982, 16(9):2253-2259.
69. Carmeliet J., Blocken B., Defraeye T., Derome D. Moisture phenomena in whole building performance prediction. Building Performance Simulation for Design and Operation 2011, 1st ed. J.L.M. Hensen, R. Lamberts (Eds.).
70. Carpentieri M., Robins A.G., Baldi S. Three-dimensional mapping of air flow at an urban canyon intersection. Boundary-Layer Meteorology 2009, 133:277-296.
71. Casey, M., Wintergerste, T., 2000. ERCOFTAC Special Interest Group on "Quality and Trust in Industrial CFD". Best Practice Guidelines. ERCOFTAC.
72. Castro I.P., Robins A.G. The flow around a surface-mounted cube in uniform and turbulent streams. Journal of Fluid Mechanics 1977, 79:307-335.
73. CEDVAL-Compilation of Experimental Data for Validation of Microscale Dispersion Models. Internet Database. Hamburg University, Germany. http://www.mi.uni-hamburg.de/Introducti.433.0.html.
74. CEDVAL-Compilation of Experimental Data for Validation of Microscale Dispersion LES-Models. Internet Database. Hamburg University, Germany. http://www.mi.uni-hamburg.de/CEDVAL-LES-V.6332.0.html.
75. Cermak J.E. Laboratory simulation of the Atmospheric Boundary Layer. AIAA Journal 1971, 9(9):1746-1754.
76. Chan S.T., Leach M.J. A validation of FEM3MP with Joint Urban 2003 Data. Journal of Applied Meteorology and Climatology 2007, 46:2127-2146.
77. Chang C.H. Computational fluid dynamics simulation of concentration distributions from a point source in the urban street canyons. Journal of Aerospace Engineering 2006, 19(2):80-86.
78. Chen H., Ooka R., Huang H., Tsuchiya T. Study on mitigation measures for outdoor thermal environment on present urban blocks in Tokyo using coupled simulation. Building and Environment 2009, 44:2290-2299.
79. Chen Q., Srebric J. Application of CFD tools for indoor and outdoor environment design. International Journal on Architectural Science 2000, 1(1):14-29.
80. Chen Q. Ventilation performance prediction for buildings: a method overview and recent applications. Building and Environment 2009, 44(4):848-858.
81. Cheng W.C., Liu C.H. Large-eddy simulation of turbulent transports in urban street canyons in different thermal stabilities. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics 2011, 99(4):434-442.
82. Choi, E.C.C., 1991. Numerical simulation of wind-driven rain falling onto a 2-D building. In: Asia Pacific Conference on Computational Mechanics. Hong Kong, p. 1721-1728.
83. Choi E.C.C. Simulation of wind-driven rain around a building. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics 1993, 46-47:721-729.
84. Choi E.C.C. Determination of wind-driven rain intensity on building faces. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics 1994, 51:55-69.
85. Choi E.C.C. Parameters affecting the intensity of wind-driven rain on the front face of a building. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics 1994, 53:1-17.
86. Choi E.C.C. Numerical modelling of gust effect on wind-driven rain. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics 1997, 72:107-116.
87. Choi E.C.C. Modelling of wind-driven rain and its soil detachment effect on hill slopes. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics 2002, 90(9):1081-1097.
88. Choudhury, D., 1993. Introduction to the Renormalization Group Method and turbulence modelling. Fluent Inc. Technical Memorandum TM-107.
89. CODASC Concentration Data of Street Canyons. Internet Database 2008, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology KIT, Germany.
90. Cook N.J. Wind-tunnel simulation of the adiabatic atmospheric boundary layer by roughness, barrier and mixing-device methods. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics 1978, 3(2-3):157-176.
91. Corbin C.D., Zhai Z.J. Experimental and numerical investigation on thermal and electrical performance of a building integrated photovoltaic-thermal collector system. Energy and Buildings 2010, 42(1):76-82.
92. Craft T.J., Gant S.E., Iacovides H., Launder B.E. A new wall function strategy for complex turbulent flows. Numerical Heat Transfer, Part B: Fundamentals 2004, 45(4):301-318.
93. Dalgliesh W.A., Surry D. BLWT, CFD and HAM modelling vs. the real world: bridging the gaps with full-scale measurements. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics 2003, 91(12-15):1651-1669.
94. Davidson C.I., Tang W., Finger S., Etyemezian V., Striegel M.F., Sherwood S.I. Soiling patterns on a tall limestone building: changes over 60 years. Environmental Science and Technology 2000, 34(4):560-565.
95. Day, A.G., Lacy, R.E., Skeen, J.W., 1955. Rain penetration through walls. A summary of the investigations made at the UK Building Research Station from 1925 to 1955. Building Research Station Note. No. C.364, unpublished.
96. De Bortoli M.E., Natalini B., Paluch M.J., Natalini M.B. Part-depth wind tunnel simulations of the atmospheric boundary layer. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics 2002, 90(4-5):281-291.
97. Defraeye T., Blocken B., Carmeliet J. CFD analysis of convective heat transfer at the surfaces of a cube immersed in a turbulent boundary layer. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 2010, 53(1-3):297-308.
98. Defraeye T., Blocken B., Carmeliet J. An adjusted temperature wall function for turbulent forced convective heat transfer for bluff bodies in the atmospheric boundary layer. Building and Environment 2011, 46(11):2130-2141.
99. Defraeye T., Blocken B., Carmeliet J. Convective heat transfer coefficients for exterior building surfaces: existing correlations and CFD modelling. Energy Conversion and Management 2011, 52(1):512-522.
100. Defraeye T., Blocken B., Carmeliet J. Analysis of convective heat and mass transfer coefficients for convective drying of a porous flat plate by conjugate modelling. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 2012, 55(1-3):112-124.
101. Defraeye T., Blocken B., Koninckx E., Hespel P., Carmeliet J. CFD analysis of cyclist aerodynamics: performance of different turbulence-modelling and boundary-layer modelling approaches. Journal of Biomechanics 2010, 43(12):2281-2287.
102. Defraeye T., Carmeliet J. A methodology to assess the influence of local wind conditions and building orientation on the convective heat transfer at building surfaces. Environmental Modelling and Software 2010, 25(12):1813-1824.
103. Dejoan A., Santiago J.L., Martilli A., Martin F., Pinelli A. Comparison between large-Eddy simulation and Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes computations for the MUST field experiment. Part II: effects of incident wind angle deviation on the mean flow and plume dispersion. Boundary-Layer Meteorology 2010, 135:133-150.
104. Dentener F., Stevenson D.S., Cofala J., Amann M., Bergamaschi P., Raes F., Derwent R. The impact of air pollutant and methane emission controls on tropospheric ozone and radiative forcing: CTM calculations for the period 1990-2030. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics Discussions 2005, 5:1731-1755.
105. Ding W., Hasemi Y., Yamada T. Natural ventilation performance of a double-skin façade with a solar chimney. Energy and Buildings 2005, 37(4):411-418.
106. Eldridge H.J. Common Defects in Buildings 1976, Her Majesty's Stationary Office, 486 p.
107. Erell E., Pearlmutter D., Williamson T. Urban Microclimate: Designing the Spaces Between Buildings 2011, Earthscan Ltd., London, UK.
108. Erriguible A., Bernada P., Couture F., Roques M. Simulation of convective drying of a porous medium with boundary conditions provided by CFD. Chemical Engineering Research and Design 2006, 84(2):113-123.
109. Evans G.W. Environmental Stress 1982, Cambridge University Press.
110. Fanger P.O. Thermal comfort: Analysis and Applications in Environmental Engineering 1970, Mc Graw Hill, New York.
111. Feddersen, B., 2005. Wind tunnel modelling of turbulence and dispersion above tall and highly dense urban roughness. Ph.D. Thesis. ETH, Zürich, Switzerland.
112. Ferreira A.D., Sousa A.C.M., Viegas D.X. Prediction of building interference effects on pedestrian level comfort. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics 2002, 90(4-5):305-319.
113. Ferziger J.H., Peric M. Computational Methods for Fluid Dynamics 2002, Springer-Verlag, Berlin Heidelberg New York, Germany. 3rd ed.
114. Franke, J., Frank, W., 2005. Numerical simulation of the flow across an asymmetric street intersection. In: Proceedings of the 4th European and African Conference on Wind Engineering (4EACWE). 11-15 July 2005, Prague, Czech Republic.
115. Franke J., Frank W. Application of generalized Richardson extrapolation to the computation of the flow across an asymmetric street intersection. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics 2008, 96(10-11):1616-1628.
116. 2007, Quality Assurance and Improvement of Microscale Meteorological Models, Hamburg, Germany. J. Franke, A. Hellsten, H. Schlünzen, B. Carissimo (Eds.).
117. Franke J., Hellsten A., Schlünzen H., Carissimo B. The COST 732 Best Practice Guideline for CFD simulation of flows in the urban environment: a summary. International Journal of Environment and Pollution 2011, 44(1-4):419-427.
118. Franke, J., Hirsch, C., Jensen, A.G., Krüs, H.W., Schatzmann, M., Westbury, P.S., Miles, S.D., Wisse, J.A., Wright, N.G., 2004. Recommendations on the use of CFD in wind engineering. In: van Beeck, J.P.A.J. (Ed.). Proceedings of the International Conference on Urban Wind Engineering and Building Aerodynamics. COST Action C14, Impact of Wind and Storm on City Life Built Environment. Von Karman Institute, Sint-Genesius-Rode, Belgium, 5-7 May 2004.
119. Franke, L., Schumann, I., van Hees, R., van der Klugt, L., Naldini, S., Binda, L., Baronio, G., Van Balen, K., Mateus, J., 1998. Damage atlas: classification and analyses of damage patterns found in brick masonry. European Commission Research Report no. 8, vol. 2. Fraunhofer IRB Verlag, 1998.
120. Gadilhe A., Janvier L., Barnaud G. Numerical and experimental modelling of the three-dimensional turbulent wind flow through an urban square. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics 1993, 46-47:755-763.
121. Gagge A.P., Fobelets A.P., Berglund L.G. Standard predictive index of human response to the thermal environment. ASHRAE Transactions 1986, 92(2B):709-731.
122. Gan G., Riffat S.B. CFD modelling of air flow and thermal performance of an atrium integrated with photovoltaics. Building and Environment 2004, 39(7):735-748.
123. Geros V., Santamouris M., Karatasou S., Tsangrassoulis A., Papanikolaou N. On the cooling potential of night ventilation techniques in the urban environment. Energy and Buildings 2005, 37(3):243-257.
124. Ghiaus C., Allard F., Santamouris M., Georgakis C., Nicol F. Urban environment influence on natural ventilation potential. Building and Environment 2006, 41:395-406.
125. Gordon R., Imbabi M.S. CFD simulation and experimental validation of a new closed circuit wind/water tunnel design. Journal of Fluids Engineering-Transactions of the ASME 1998, 120(2):311-318.
126. Gorlé C., van Beeck J., Rambaud P., Van Tendeloo G. CFD modelling of small particle dispersion: the influence of the turbulence kinetic energy in the atmospheric boundary layer. Atmospheric Environment 2009, 43(3):673-681.
127. Gousseau P., Blocken B., Stathopoulos T., van Heijst G.J.F. CFD simulation of near-field pollutant dispersion on a high-resolution grid: a case study by LES and RANS for a building group in downtown Montreal. Atmospheric Environment 2011, 45(2):428-438.
128. Gousseau P., Blocken B., van Heijst G.J.F. CFD simulation of pollutant dispersion around isolated buildings: on the role of convective and turbulent mass fluxes in the prediction accuracy. Journal of Hazardous Materials 2011, 194:422-434.
129. Green S.R. Modelling turbulent air flow in a stand of widely-spaced trees. PHOENICS Journal of Computational Fluid Dynamics and its Applications 1992, 5:294-312.
130. Gromke C., Buccolieri R., Di Sabatino S., Ruck B. Dispersion study in a street canyon with tree planting by means of wind tunnel and numerical investigations-evaluation of CFD data with experimental data. Atmospheric Environment 2008, 42:8640-8650.
131. Gromke C. A vegetation modeling concept for Building and Environmental Aerodynamics wind tunnel tests and its application in pollutant dispersion studies. Environmental Pollution 2011, 159(8-9):2094-2099.
132. Halitsky J. Gas diffusion near buildings. ASHRAE Transactions 1963, 69:464-485.
133. Hamdi H., Schayes G. Sensitivity study of the urban heat island intensity to urban characteristics. International Journal of Climatology 2008, 28(7):973-982.
134. Hangan H. Wind-driven rain studies. A C-FD-E approach. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics 1999, 81:323-331.
135. Hanjalic K., Kenjeres S. Some developments in turbulence modeling for wind and environmental engineering. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics 2008, 96(10-11):1537-1570.
136. Hanna S.R., Brown M.J., Camelli F.E., Chan S.T., Coirier W.J., Hansen O.R., Huber A.H., Kim S., Reynolds R.M. Detailed simulations of atmospheric flow and dispersion in downtown Manhattan-An application of five computational fluid dynamics models. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 2006, 87:1713-1726.
137. Hargreaves D.M., Wright N.G. On the use of the k-ε model in commercial CFD software to model the neutral atmospheric boundary layer. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics 2007, 95(5):355-369.
138. Harlan S.L., Brazel A.J., Prashad L., Stefanov W.L., Larsen L. Neighborhood microclimates and vulnerability to heat stress. Social Science and Medicine 2006, 63(11):2847-2863.
139. Harris D.J., Helwig N. Solar chimney and building ventilation. Applied Energy 2007, 84(2):135-146.
140. Hataya, N., Mochida, A., Iwata, T., Tabata, Y., Yoshino, H., Tominaga, Y., 2006. Development of the simulation method for thermal environment and pollutant diffusion in street canyons with subgrid scale obstacles. In: Proceedings of the Fourth International Symposium on Computational Wind Engineering (CWE2006), Yokohama, Japan, pp. 553-556.
141. He J., Hoyano A., Asawa T. A numerical simulation tool for predicting the impact of outdoor thermal environment on building energy performance. Applied Energy 2009, 86(9):1596-1605.
142. He J., Song C.C.S. Evaluation of pedestrian winds in urban area by numerical approach. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics 1999, 81(1-3):295-309.
143. Hewitt C.N., Jackson A.V. Handbook of Atmospheric Science: Principles and Applications 2003, Blackwell Science Ltd.
144. Hirano, Y., Imura, H., Ichinose, T., 2009. Effects of the heat island phenomenon on energy consumption in commercial and residential sectors of metropolitan Tokyo. In: 7th International Conference on Urban Climate (ICUC7), Yokohama, Japan.
145. Hiraoka H., Ohashi M. A k-ε turbulence closure model for plant canopy flows. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics 2008, 96(10-11):2139-2149.
146. Hiraoka H. An investigation of the effect of environmental factors on the budgets of heat, water vapour, and carbon dioxide within a tree. Energy 2005, 30(2-4):281-298.
147. Hirsch, C., Bouffioux, V., Wilquem, F., 2002. CFD simulation of the impact of new buildings on wind comfort in an urban area. In: Workshop Proceedings, Cost Action C14, Impact of Wind and Storm on City Life and Built Environment, Nantes, France.
148. Högberg, A.B., Kragh, M.K., van Mook, F.J.R., 1999. A comparison of driving rain measurements with different gauges. In: Proceedings of the 5th Symposium of Building Physics in the Nordic Countries, Gothenburg, pp. 361-368.
149. Holmes J.D. Wind Loading of Structures 2001, Taylor and Francis, New York, USA.
150. Höppe P. The physiological equivalent temperature-a universal index for the biometeorological assessment of the thermal environment. International Journal of Biometeorology 1999, 43:71-75.
151. Huang S.H., Li Q.S. Numerical simulations of wind-driven rain on building envelopes based on Eulerian multiphase model. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics 2010, 98(12):843-857.
152. Huber A.H., Snyder W.H. Wind tunnel investigation of the effects of a rectangular shaped building on dispersion of effluent from short adjacent stacks. Atmospheric Environment 1982, 16(12):2837-2848.
153. Hussein A.S., El-Shishiny H. Influences of wind flow over heritage sites: a case study of the wind environment over the Giza Plateau in Egypt. Environmental Modelling & Software 2009, 24(3):389-410.
154. Huttner, S., Bruse, M., Dostal, P., 2008. Using ENVI-met to simulate the impact of global warming on the microclimate in central European cities. In: Mayer, H., Matzarakis, A., (Eds.). 5th Japanese-German Meeting on Urban Climatology. October 2008, pp. 307-312.
155. IPCC, 1990. Climate Change-The IPCC Impacts Assessment. Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra, Australia.
156. ISO 7243, 2003. Hot environments-estimation of the heat stress on working man, based on the WBGT-index (wet bulb globe temperature).
157. ISO 7730, 2005. Ergonomics of the thermal environment-analytical determination and interpretation of thermal comfort using calculation of the PMV and PPD indices and local thermal comfort criteria.
158. Isyumov N., Davenport A.G. Comparison of full-scale and wind tunnel wind speed measurements in the commerce court plaza. Journal of Industrial Aerodynamics 1975, 1:201-212.
159. Jiang Y., Alexander D., Jenkins H., Arthur R., Chen Q. Natural ventilation in buildings: Measurement in a wind tunnel and numerical simulation with large-eddy simulation. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics 2003, 91(3):331-353.
160. Jones W.P., Launder B.E. The prediction of laminarization with a two-equation model of turbulence. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 1972, 15:301-314.
161. Jonsson L., Karlsson E., Jönsson P. Aspects of particulate dry deposition in the urban environment. Journal of Hazardous Materials 2008, 153(1-2):229-243.
162. Kanda M. Progress in the scale modeling of urban climate: review. Theoretical and Applied Climatology 2006, 84(1-3):23-33.
163. Karava P., Mohammad Jubayer C., Savory E. Numerical modelling of forced convective heat transfer from the inclined windward roof of an isolated low-rise building with application to photovoltaic/thermal systems. Applied Thermal Engineering 2011, 31(11-12):1950-1963.
164. Karava P., Stathopoulos T., Athienitis A.K. Wind-induced natural ventilation analysis. Solar Energy 2007, 81(1):20-30.
165. Karava P., Stathopoulos T., Athienitis A.K. Airflow assessment in cross-ventilated buildings with operable facade elements. Building and Environment 2011, 46(1):266-279.
166. Kastner-Klein P., Berkowicz R., Britter R. The influence of street architecture on flow and dispersion in street canyons. Meteorology and Atmospheric Physics 2004, 87:121-131.
167. Katzschner, L., Thorsson, S., 2009. Microclimatic Investigations as Tool for Urban Design. In: 7th International Conference on Urban Climate (ICUC7), Yokohama, Japan.
168. Kikegawa Y., Genchi Y., Kondo H., Hanaki K. Impacts of city-block-scale countermeasures against urban heat-island phenomena upon a building's energy-consumption for air-conditioning. Applied Energy 2006, 83:649-668.
169. Kikegawa Y., Genchi Y., Yoshikado H., Kondo H. Development of a numerical simulation system toward comprehensive assessments of urban warming countermeasures including their impacts upon the urban buildings' energy-demands. Applied Energy 2003, 76:449-466.
170. Kim H.G., Patel V.C., Lee C.M. Numerical simulation of wind flow over hilly terrain. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics 2000, 87(1):45-60.
171. Klein P., Leitl B., Schatzmann M. Concentration fluctuations in a downtown urban area. Part II: analysis of Joint Urban 2003 wind-tunnel measurements. Environmental Fluid Mechanics 2011, 11:43-60.
172. Kolokotroni M., Davies M., Croxford B., Bhuiyan S., Mavrogianni A. A validated methodology for the prediction of heating and cooling energy demand for buildings within the Urban Heat Island: case-study of London. Solar Energy 2010, 84(12):2246-2255.
173. Kolokotroni M., Giannitsaris I., Watkins R. The effect of the London Urban Heat Island on building summer cooling demand and night ventilation strategies. Solar Energy 2006, 80:383-392.
174. Krpo, A., 2009. Development and application of a numerical simulation system to evaluate the impact of anthropogenic heat fluxes on urban boundary layer climate. Ph.D. Thesis. Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne, p. 4428.
175. Krüger E.L., Pearlmutter D. The effect of urban evaporation on building energy demand in an arid environment. Energy and Buildings 2008, 40(11):2090-2098.
176. Kubota T., Miura M., Tominaga Y., Mochida A. Wind tunnel tests on the relationship between building density and pedestrian-level wind velocity: development of guidelines for realizing acceptable wind environment in residential neighborhoods. Building and Environment 2008, 43(10):1699-1708.
177. Landsberg H.E. The Urban Climate 1981, Academic Press Inc., New York, US.
178. Lateb M., Masson C., Stathopoulos T., Bédard C. Numerical simulation of pollutant dispersion around a building complex. Building and Environment 2010, 45:1788-1798.
179. Launder B.E., Spalding D.B. Lectures in Mathematical Models of Turbulence 1972, Academic Press, London. UK.
180. Launder B.E., Spalding D.B. The numerical computation of turbulent flows. Computer Methods in Applied Mechanics and Engineering 1974, 3(2):269-289.
181. Launder B.E. On the computation of convective heat transfer in complex turbulent flows. Transactions of the ASME: Journal of Heat Transfer 1988, 110:1112-1128.
182. Lawson, T.V., Penwarden, A.D., 1975. The effects of wind on people in the vicinity of buildings. In: 4th International Conference on Wind Effects on Buildings and Structures, Heathrow.
183. Lazure L., Saathoff P., Stathopoulos T. Air intake contamination by building exhausts: tracer gas investigation of atmospheric dispersion models in the urban environment. Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association 2002, 52:160-166.
184. Lee C.S., Haghighat F., Ghaly W. Conjugate mass transfer modelling for VOC source and sink behavior of porous building materials: when to apply it?. Journal of Building Physics 2006, 30(2):91-111.
185. Leitl B.M., Kastner-Klein P., Rau M., Meroney R.N. Concentration and flow distributions in the vicinity of U-shaped buildings: wind-tunnel and computational data. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics 1997, 67-68:745-755.
186. Leitl B.M., Meroney R.N. Car exhaust dispersion in a street canyon. Numerical critique of a wind tunnel experiment. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics 1997, 67(8):293-304.
187. Li W., Meroney R.M. Gas dispersion near a cubical model building-Part I. Mean concentration measurements. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics 1983, 12:15-33.
188. Lindberg F., Holmer B., Thorsson S. SOLWEIG 1.0-modelling spatial variations of 3D radiant fluxes and mean radiant temperature in complex urban settings. International Journal of Biometeorology 2008, 52:697-713.
189. Liu, Z., Brown, T.M., Cope, A.D., Reinhold, T.A., 2011. Simulation Wind Conditions/Events in the IBHS Research Center Full-Scale Test Facility. 13th International Conference on Wind Engineering (ICWE13), Amsterdam, The Netherlands, July 10-15, 2011.
190. Livesey F., Inculet D., Isyumov N., Davenport A.G. A scour technique for evaluation of pedestrian winds. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics 1990, 36:779-789.
191. Löhner R., Cebral J.R., Camelli F.E., Appanaboyina S., Baum J.D., Mestreau E.L., Soto O.A. Adaptive embedded and immersed unstructured grid techniques. Computer Methods in Applied Mechanics and Engineering 2008, 197(25-28):2173-2197.
192. Loveday D.L., Taki A.H., Versteeg H. Convection coefficients at disrupted building facades: laboratory and simulation studies. International Journal of Ambient Energy 1994, 15(1):17-26.
193. Marsh P. Air and Rain Penetration of Buildings 1977, The Construction Press Ltd., Lancaster, England, 174 p.
194. Maskell, E.C., 1963. A theory of the blockage effects on bluff bodies and stalled wings in a closed wind tunnel. Reports and Memoranda no. 3400. Aeronoutical Research Council.
195. Masmoudi W., Prat M. Heat and mass transfer between a porous medium and a parallel external flow. Application to drying of capillary porous materials. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 1991, 34(8):1975-1989.
196. Matzarakis A., Rutz F., Mayer H. Modelling radiatin fluxe in simple and complex evironements: basics of the RyMan model. International Journal of Biometeorology 2010, 54:131-139.
197. Maurenbrecher A.H.P., Suter G.T. Frost damage to clay brick in a loadbearing masonry building. Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering 1993, 20:247-253.
198. Mayer H., Holst J., Dostal P., Imbery F., Schindler D. Human thermal comfort in summer within an urban street canyon in Central Europe. Meteorologische Zeitschrift 2008, 17(3):241-250.
199. McNabola A., Broderick B.M., Gill L.W. Reduced exposure to air pollution on the boardwalk in Dublin, Ireland. Measurement and prediction. Environment International 2008, 34:86-93.
200. McNabola A., Broderick B.M., Gill L.W. A numerical investigation of the impact of low boundary walls on pedestrian exposure to air pollutants in urban street canyons. Science of the Total Environment 2009, 407:760-769.
201. Melese Endalew A., Hertog M., Delele M.A., Baetens K., Persoons T., Baelmans M., Ramon H., Nicolaï B.M., Verboven P. CFD modelling and wind tunnel validation of airflow through plant canopies using 3D canopy architecture. International Journal of Heat and Fluid Flow 2009, 30(2):356-368.
202. Melese Endalew A., Hertog M., Gebreslasie Gebrehiwot M., Baelmans M., Ramon H., Nicolaï B.M., Verboven P. Modelling airflow within model plant canopies using an integrated approach. Computers and Electronics in Agriculture 2009, 66(1):9-24.
203. Menter F.R. Two-equation eddy-viscosity turbulence models for engineering applications. AIAA Journal 1994, 32(8):1598-1605.
204. Meroney R.N., Leitl B.M., Rafailidis S., Schatzmann M. Wind tunnel and numerical modelling of flow and dispersion about several building shapes. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics 1999, 81(1-3):333-345.
205. Meroney, R.N., 2004. Wind tunnel and numerical simulation of pollution dispersion: a hybrid approach. Working paper. Croucher Advanced Study Insitute on Wind Tunnel Modeling, Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, 6-10 December, p. 60.
206. Meroney R.N. Protocol for CFD prediction of cooling-tower drift in an urban environment. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics 2008, 96(10-11):1789-1804.
207. Miles, S.D., Westbury, P.S., 2002. Assessing CFD as a tool for practical wind engineering applications. In: Proceedings of the Fifth UK Conference on Wind Engineering, September.
208. Minson A.J., Wood C.J., Belcher R.E. Experimental velocity measurements for CFD validation. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics 1995, 58(3):205-215.
209. Mirzaei P.A., Haghighat F. A novel approach to enhance outdoor air quality: pedestrian ventilation system. Building and Environment 2010, 45:1582-1593.
210. Mittal R., Iaccarino G. Immersed boundary methods. Annual Review of Fluid Mechanics 2005, 37:239-261.
211. Mochida, A., Hataya, N., Iwata, T., Tabata, Y., Yoshino, H., Watanabe, H., 2006. CFD analyses on outdoor thermal environment and air pollutant diffusion in street canyons under the influences of moving automobiles. In: Proceedings of the Sixth International Conference on Urban Climate (ICUC6), Goteborg, Sweden.
212. Mochida A., Lun I.Y.F. Prediction of wind environment and thermal comfort at pedestrian level in urban area. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics 2008, 96(10-11):1498-1527.
213. Mochida A., Murakami S., Ojima T., Kim S., Ooka R., Sugiyama H. CFD analysis of mesoscale climate in the Greater Tokyo area. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics 1997, 67-68:459-477.
214. Moin P., Mahesh K. Direct numerical simulation: a tool in turbulence. Annual Review of Fluid Mechanics 1998, 30:539-578.
215. Montazeri H., Montazeri F., Azizian R., Mostafavi S. Two-sided wind catcher performance evaluation using experimental, numerical and analytical modelling. Renewable Energy 2010, 35(7):1424-1435.
216. Moonen P., Blocken B., Carmeliet J. Indicators for the evaluation of wind tunnel test section flow quality and application to a numerical closed-circuit wind tunnel. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics 2007, 95(9-11):1289-1314.
217. Moonen P., Blocken B., Roels S., Carmeliet J. Numerical modeling of the flow conditions in a low-speed closed-circuit wind tunnel. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics 2006, 94(10):699-723.
218. Moonen P., Dorer V., Carmeliet J. Evaluation of the ventilation potential of courtyards and urban street canyons using RANS and LES. Journal of Wind Engineering & Industrial Aerodynamics 2011, 99(4):414-423.
219. Moonen P., Dorer V., Carmeliet J. Effect of flow unsteadiness on the mean wind flow pattern in an idealised urban environment. Journal of Wind Engineering & Industrial Aerodynamics 2012, (accepted with minor revisions).
220. Moonen P., Sluys L.J., Carmeliet J. A continuous-discontinuous approach to simulate physical degradation processes in porous media. International Journal for Numerical Methods in Engineering 2010, 84(9):1009-1037.
221. Mora L., Gadgil A.J., Wurtz E. Comparing zonal and CFD model predictions of isothermal indoor airflows to experimental data. Indoor Air 2003, 13(2):77-85.
222. Murakami S. Computational wind engineering. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics 1990, 36(1):517-538.
223. Murakami S. Comparison of various turbulence models applied to a bluff body. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics 1993, 46-47:21-36.
224. Murakami S. Indoor/outdoor climate design by CFD based on the Software Platform. International Journal of Heat and Fluid Flow 2004, 25:849-863.
225. Murugesan K., Suresh H.N., Seetharamu K.N., Aswatha Narayana P.A., Sundararajan T. A theoretical model of brick drying as a conjugate problem. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 2001, 44(21):4075-4086.
226. NEN, 2006a. Wind comfort and wind danger in the built environment, NEN 8100 (in Dutch). Dutch Standard.
227. NEN, 2006b. Application of mean hourly wind speed statistics for the Netherlands, NPR 6097:2006 (in Dutch). Dutch Practice Guideline.
228. Neofytou P., Venetsanos A.G., Vlachogiannis D., Bartzis J.G., Scaperdas A. CFD simulations of the wind environment around an airport terminal building. Environmental Modelling & Software 2006, 21(4):520-524.
229. Neophytou M., Gowardan A., Brown M. An inter-comparison of three urban wind models using the Oklahoma City Joint Urban 2003 wind field measurements. International Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics 2011, 99(4):357-368.
230. Nicol J.F., Humphreys M.A. Derivation of the adaptive equations for thermal comfort in free-running buildings in European Standard EN15251. Energy and Buildings 2010, 45(1):11-17.
231. Nikolopoulou M., Baker N., Steemers K. Thermal comfort in outdoor urban spaces: understanding the human parameter. Solar Energy 2001, 70(3):227-235.
232. Nikolopoulou M., Steemers K. Thermal comfort and psychological adaptation as a guide for designing urban spaces. Energy and Buildings 2003, 35(1):95-101.
233. Nikolopoulou, M., 2004. Designing Open Spaces In The Urban Environment: A Bioclimatic Approach. Project Report RUROS-Rediscovering the Urban Realm and Open Spaces. http://alpha.cres.gr/ruros/.
234. Norton T., Grant J., Fallon R., Sun D.W. Assessing the ventilation effectiveness of naturally ventilated livestock buildings under wind dominated conditions using computational fluid dynamics. Biosystems Engineering 2009, 103(1):78-99.
235. Norton T., Grant J., Fallon R., Sun D.W. Optimising the ventilation configuration of naturally ventilated livestock buildings for improved indoor environmental homogeneity. Building and Environment 2010, 45(4):983-995.
236. NPARC. Alliance CFD Verification and Validation (National programme for applications-oriented research in CFD) ( [accessed 15.10.2010]). http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/wind/valid/validation.html.
237. Okamoto T., Takeuchi M. Effects of side walls of wind-tunnel on flow around two-dimensional circular cylinder and its wake. Bulletin of the JSME 1975, 18(123):1011-1017.
238. Oke T.R. The energetic basis of the urban heat island. Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorologica Society 1982, 108(455):1-24.
239. Oke T.R., Johnson G.T., Steyn D.G., Watson I.D. Simulation of surface urban heat islands under 'ideal' conditions at night-part 2 Diagnosis of causation. Boundary-Layer Meteorology 1991, 56:339-358.
240. O'Mahony, M., Gill, L.W., Broderick, B.M., English, L., Ahern, A., 2000. Scope of transport impacts on the environment. Environmental Research Technological Development and Innovation (ERTDI) Programme 2000-2006 Report Series no. 9.
241. Ooka R. Recent development of assessment tools for urban climate and heat-island investigation especially based on experiences in Japan. International Journal of Climatology 2007, 27:1919-1930.
242. Panofsky H., Dutton J. Atmospheric Turbulence 1984, Wiley, New York.
243. Pantavou K., Theoharatos G., Mavrakis A., Santamouris M. Evaluating thermal comfort conditions and health responses during an extremely hot summer in Athens. Building and Environment 2011, 46(2):339-344.
244. Parente A., Gorle C., van Beeck J., Benocci C. Improved k-ε model and wall function formulation for the RANS simulation of ABL flows. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics 2011, 99(4):267-278.
245. Pasquill F., Smith F.B. Atmospheric Diffusion 1983, Ellis Horwood Ltd., Chichester, England. third ed.
246. Pearlmutter D., Berliner P., Shaviv E. Integrated modeling of pedestrian energy exchange and thermal comfort in urban street canyons. Building and Environment 2007, 42:2396-2409.
247. Persoon J., van Hooff T., Blocken B., Carmeliet J., de Wit M.H. Impact of roof geometry on rain shelter in football stadia. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics 2008, 96(8-9):1274-1293.
248. Pickup, J., de Dear, R., 1999. An Outdoor Thermal Comfort Index (OUT_SET*)-Part I-The Model and its Assumptions. In: ICB-ICUC'99, Sydney, 8-12 November1999.
249. Pope S.B. Turbulent Flows 2009, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. First ed.
250. Popovac M., Hanjalic K. Compound wall treatment for RANS computation of complex turbulent flows and heat transfer. Flow, Turbulence and Combustion 2007, 78(2):177-202.
251. Price C.A. The decay and preservation of natural building stone. Chemistry in Britain 1975, 11(10):350-353.
252. Rasheed, A., 2009. Multiscale Modelling of Urban Climate. Ph.D. Thesis. 4531, EPFL, Lausanne, Switzerland.
253. Ren, C., Ng, E., Katzschner, L. Urban climatic map studies: a review. International Journal of Climatology. In press, doi: 10.1002/joc.2237.
254. Richards P.J., Hoxey R.P. Appropriate boundary conditions for computational wind engineering models using the k-ε turbulence model. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics 1993, 46-47:145-153.
255. Richards P.J., Mallison G.D., McMillan D., Li Y.F. Pedestrian level wind speeds in downtown Auckland. Wind and Structures 2002, 5(2-4):151-164.
256. Richards P.J., Norris S.E. Appropriate boundary conditions for computational wind engineering models revisited. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics 2011, 99(4):257-266.
257. Riddle A., Carruthers D., Sharpe A., McHugh C., Stocker J. Comparisons between FLUENT and ADMS for atmospheric dispersion modeling. Atmospheric Environment 2004, 38(7):1029-1038.
258. Robinson D., Bruse M. Pedestrian comfort. Computer Modelling for Sustainable Urban Design 2011, Earthscan, London, Washington DC. D. Robinson (Ed.).
259. Robinson, D., Haldi, F., Kämpf, J., Perez, D., 2011. Computer modelling for sustainable urban design. In: Computer Modelling for Sustainable Urban Design. Earthscan, London, Washington DC.
260. Robinson D., Stone A. A simplified radiosity algorithm for general urban radiation exchange. Building Services Engineering Research and Technology 2005, 26(4):271-284.
261. Rotach M.W., Vogt R., Bernhofer C., Batchvarova E., Christen A., Clappier A., Feddersen B., Gryning S.E., Martucci G., Mayer H., Mitev V., Oke T.R., Parlow E., Richner H., Roth M., Roulet Y.A., Ruffieux D., Salmond J., Schatzmann M., Voogt J. BUBBLE-an urban boundary layer meteorology project. Theoretical and Applied Climatology 2005, 81:231-261.
262. Runsheng T., Etzion Y., Erell E. Experimental studies on a novel roof pond configuration for the cooling of buildings. Renewable Energy 2003, 28(10):1513-1522.
263. Saathoff P., Stathopoulos T., Wu H. The influence of freestream turbulence on nearfield dilution of exhaust from building vents. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics 1998, 77-78:741-752.
264. Saathoff P.J., Stathopoulos T., Dobrescu M. Effects of model scale in estimating pollutant dispersion near buildings. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics 1995, 54-55:549-559.
265. Salim S.M., Buccolieri R., Chan A., Di Sabatino S. Numerical simulation of atmospheric pollutant dispersion in an urban street canyon: comparison between RANS and LES. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics 2011, 99:103-113.
266. Salim S.M., Cheah S.C., Chan A. Numerical simulation of dispersion in urban street canyons with avenue like tree plantings: comparison between RANS and LES. Building and Environment 2011, 46:1735-1746.
267. Saneinejad S., Moonen P., Carmeliet J. Analysis of convective heat and mass transfer at the vertical walls of a street canyon. Journal of Wind Engineering & Industrial Aerodynamics 2011, 99(4):424-433.
268. Saneinejad S., Moonen P., Defraeye T., Derome D., Carmeliet J. Coupled CFD, radiation and porous media transport model for evaluating evaporative cooling in an urban environment. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics 2012, 104-106:455-463.
269. Santamouris Energy and climate in the urban built environment 2001, James & James Ltd, London, UK.
270. Santamouris Environmental Design Of Urban Buildings 2006, Earthscan, London Washington DC.
271. Santamouris M., Papanikolaou N., Livada I., Koronakis I., Georgakis C., Argiriou A., Assimakopoulos D.N. On the impact of urban climate on the energy consumption of buildings. Solar Energy 2001, 70(3):201-216.
272. Santiago J.L., Dejoan A., Martilli A., Martin F., Pinelli A. Comparison between large-eddy simulation and Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes computations for the MUST field experiment. Part I: study of the flow for an incident wind directed perpendicularly to the front array of containers. Boundary-Layer Meteorology 2010, 135:109-132.
273. Santiago J.L., Martilli A. A dynamic urban canopy parameterization for mesoscale models based on computational fluid dynamics Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes microscale simulations. Boundary-Layer Meteorology 2010, 137:417-439.
274. Santiago J.L., Martin F. Modelling the air flow in symmetric and asymmetric street canyons. International Journal of Environment and Pollution 2005, 25:145-154.
275. Sanz C., Mahrt L., Poggi D., Katul G. One- and two-equation models for canopy turbulence. Boundary-Layer Meteorology 2004, 113:81-109.
276. Sanz C. A note on k-ε modelling of vegetation canopy air-flow. Boundary-Layer Meteorology 2003, 108(1):191-197.
277. Sasaki K., Mochida A., Yoshino H., Watanabe H., Yoshida T. A new method to select appropriate countermeasures against heat-island effects according to the regional characteristics of heat balance mechanism. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics 2008, 96(10-11):1629-1639.
278. Sasaki R., Uematsu Y., Yamada M., Saeki H. Application of infrared thermography and a knowledge-based system to the evaluation of the pedestrian-level wind environment around buildings. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics 1997, 67-68:873-883.
279. Schatzmann M., Leitl B. Issues with validation of urban flow and dispersion CFD models. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics 2011, 99(4):169-186.
280. Schatzmann M., Leitl B., Liedtke J. Ausbreitungvon KFZ-Abgasen in Straßenschluchten. Abschlußbericht PEF 1999, 2:96001.
281. Schatzmann M., Leitl B., Liedtke J. Dispersion in urban environments: comparison of field measurements with wind tunnel results. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 2000, 65(1-2):249-257.
282. Schatzmann M., Rafailidis S., Pavageau M. Some remarks on the validation of small-scale dispersion models with field and laboratory data. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics 1997, 67-68:885-893.
283. Scherba A., Sailor D.J., Rosenstiel T.N., Wamser C.C. Modeling impacts of roof reflectivity, integrated photovoltaic panels and green roof systems on sensible heat flux into the urban environment. Building and Environment 2011, 46(12):2542-2551.
284. Schneider A., Maas A. Einfluss des Mikroklimas auf das energetische und thermische Verhalten von Gebäuden am Beispiel des Standortes Kassel. Bauphysik 2010, 32(6):348-358.
285. Shih T.H., Liou W.W., Shabbir A., Yang Z., Zhu J. A new k-ε eddy viscosity model for high Reynolds number turbulent flows. Computers & Fluids 1995, 24(3):227-238.
286. Shih T.H., Povinelli L.A., Liu N.S. Application of generalized wall function for complex turbulent flows. Journal of Turbulence 2003, 4(1):1-16.
287. Shimoda Z. Adaptation measures for climate change and the urban heat island in Japan's built environment. Building Research & Information 2003, 31(3-4):222-230.
288. Smagorinsky J. General circulation experiments with the primitive equations. Monthly Weather Review 1963, 91(3):99-164.
289. Smolarkiewicz P.K., Sharman R., Weil J., Perry S.G., Heist D., Bowker G. Building resolving large-eddy simulations and comparison with wind tunnel experiments. Journal of Computational Physics 2007, 227(1):633-653.
290. 2007, Climate Change 2007 - The Physical Science Basis. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, USA. S. Solomon, D. Qin, M. Manning, Z. Chen, M. Marquis, K.B. Averyt, M. Tignor, H.L. Miller (Eds.).
291. Soulhac L., Garbero V., Salizzoni P., Mejean P., Perkins R.J. Flow and dispersion in street intersections. Atmospheric Environment 2009, 43:2981-2996.
292. Spalart, P.R., Jou, W.H., Strelets, M., Allmaras, S.R., 1997. Comments on the feasibility of LES for wings, and on a hybrid RANS/LES approach. In: Liu, C., Liu, Z., Eds., 1st AFOSR International Conference on DNS/LES, August 4-8, 1997, Ruston, LA. Advances in DNS/LES. Greyden Press, Columbus, OH, USA.
293. Spalart, P.R., 2001. Young-person's guide to Detached-Eddy Simulation grids, NASA CR-2001-211032.
294. Stathopoulos T., Baskaran A. Computer simulation of wind environmental conditions around buildings. Engineering Structures 1996, 18(11):876-885.
295. Stathopoulos, T., Lazure, L., Saathoff, P., Gupta, A., 2004. The effect of stack height, stack location and roof-top structures on air intake contamination-a laboratory and full-scale study. IRSST report R-392, Montreal, Canada, 2004.
296. Stathopoulos T., Lazure L., Saathoff P., Wei X. Dilution of exhaust from a rooftop stack on a cubical building in an urban environment. Atmospheric Environment 2002, 36:4577-4591.
297. Stathopoulos T. The numerical wind tunnel for industrial aerodynamics: real or virtual in the new millennium?. Wind and Structures 2002, 5(2-4):193-208.
298. Stathopoulos T. Pedestrian level winds and outdoor human comfort. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics 2006, 94(11):769-780.
299. Steeman H.J., Van Belleghem M., Janssens A., De Paepe M. Coupled simulation of heat and moisture transport in air and porous materials for the assessment of moisture related damage. Building and Environment 2009, 44(10):2176-2184.
300. Straube, J.F., Burnett, E.F.P., 2000. Simplified prediction of driving rain on buildings. In: Proceedings of the International Building Physics Conference, Eindhoven, The Netherlands, 18-21 September 2000, pp. 375-382.
301. Strømann-Andersen J., Sattrup P.A. The urban canyon and building energy use: urban density versus daylight and passive solar gains. Energy and Buildings 2011, 43(8):2011-2020.
302. Stupart A.W. A survey of literature relating to frost damage in bricks. Masonry International 1989, 3(2):42-50.
303. Synnefa A., Santamouris M., Apostolakis K. On the development, optical properties and thermal performance of cool colored coatings for the urban environment. Solar Energy 2007, 81(4):488-497.
304. Tablada A., De Troyer F., Blocken B., Carmeliet J., Verschure H. On natural ventilation and thermal comfort in compact urban environments-the Old Havana case. Building and Environment 2009, 44(9):1943-1958.
305. Takakura S., Suyama Y., Aoyama M. Numerical simulation of flow field around buildings in an urban area. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics 1993, 46-47:765-771.
306. Tang W., Davidson C.I. Erosion of limestone building surfaces caused by wind-driven rain. 2. Numerical modelling. Atmospheric Environment 2004, 38(33):5601-5609.
307. Tang, W., Huber, A., Bell, B., Kuehlert, K., Schwarz, W., 2005. Example application of CFD simulations for short-range atmospheric dispersion over the open fields of Project Prairie Grass. In: A&WMA Conference. Paper # 1243.
308. Tanimoto J., Hagishima A., Chimklai P. An approach for coupled simulation of building thermal effect and urban climatology. Energy and Buildings 2004, 36(8):781-793.
309. Tiwari G.N., Kumar A., Sodha M.S. A review: Cooling by water evaporation over roof. Energy Conversion & Management 1982, 22:143-153.
310. Tominaga Y., Mochida A., Murakami S., Sawaki S. Comparison of various revised k-ε models and LES applied to flow around a high-rise building model with 1:1:2 shape placed within the surface boundary layer. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics 2008, 96(4):389-411.
311. Tominaga Y., Mochida A., Yoshie R., Kataoka H., Nozu T., Yoshikawa M., Shirasawa T. AIJ guidelines for practical applications of CFD to pedestrian wind environment around buildings. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics 2008, 96(10-11):1749-1761.
312. Tominaga Y., Murakami S., Mochida A. CFD prediction of gaseous diffusion around a cubic model using a dynamic mixed SGS model based on composite grid technique. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics 1997, 67-68:827-841.
313. Tominaga Y., Stathopoulos T. Turbulent Schmidt numbers for CFD analysis with various types of flow field. Atmospheric Environment 2007, 41(37):8091-8099.
314. Tominaga Y., Stathopoulos T. Numerical simulation of dispersion around an isolated cubic building: model evaluation of RANS and LES. Building and Environment 2010, 45:2231-2239.
315. Tominaga Y., Stathopoulos T. CFD modeling of pollution dispersion in a street canyon: comparison between LES and RANS. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics 2011, 99:340-348.
316. Turner D.B. Workbook of atmospheric dispersion estimates. Environmental Protection Agency, Environmental Health Series Air Pollution 1970, 84.
317. Uehara K., Murakami S., Oikawa S., Wakamatsu S. Wind tunnel experiments on how thermal stratification affects flow in and above urban street canyons. Atmospheric Environment 2000, 34:1553-1562.
318. Uematsu Y., Isyumov N. Wind pressures acting on low-rise buildings. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics 1999, 82(1):1-25.
319. United Nations, 2010. Department of Economic and Social Affairs. Population Division. World Urbanisation Prospects. The 2009 Revision. CD-ROM.
320. van Hooff T., Blocken B., Aanen L., Bronsema B. A venturi-shaped roof for wind-induced natural ventilation of buildings: wind tunnel and CFD evaluation of different design configurations. Building and Environment 2011, 46(9):1797-1807.
321. van Hooff T., Blocken B., van Harten M. 3D CFD simulations of wind flow and wind-driven rain shelter in sports stadia: influence of stadium geometry. Building and Environment 2011, 46(1):22-37.
322. van Hooff T., Blocken B. On the effect of wind direction and urban surroundings on natural ventilation of a large semi-enclosed stadium. Computers & Fluids 2010, 39:1146-1155.
323. van Hooff T., Blocken B. Coupled urban wind flow and indoor natural ventilation modelling on a high-resolution grid: a case study for the Amsterdam ArenA stadium. Environmental Modelling and Software 2010, 25(1):51-65.
324. Van Mook, F.J.R., 2002. Driving rain on building envelopes. Ph.D. Thesis. Building Physics Group (FAGO). Technische Universiteit Eindhoven, Eindhoven University Press, Eindhoven, The Netherlands.
325. VDI 3783-12 Physical Modelling of Flow and Dispersion Processes in the Atmospheric Boundary Layer-Application of Wind Tunnels 2000, Beuth Verlag, Berlin.
326. Verkaik J.W. Evaluation of two gustiness models for exposure correction calculations. Journal of Applied Meteorology 2000, 39(9):1613-1626.
327. Verkaik, J.W., 2006. On wind and roughness over land. Ph.D. Thesis. Wageningen University. The Netherlands, 123 p.
328. Visser G.T., Cleijne J.W. Wind comfort predictions by wind tunnel tests: comparison with full-scale data. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics 1994, 52:385-402.
329. Voogt J.A. Urban heat island. Encyclopedia of Global Environmental Change. Volume 3, Causes and Consequences of Global Environmental Change 2002, John Wiley & Sons Ltd., Chichester, 2002. T. Munn, A. Douglas (Eds.).
330. Walczewski J., Feleksy-Bielak M. Diurnal variation of characteristic sodar echoes and the diurnal change of atmospheric stability. Atmospheric Environment 1988, 22(9):1793-1800.
331. Walton A., Cheng A.Y.S. Large-eddy simulation of pollution dispersion in an urban street canyon-Part II: idealised canyon simulation. Atmospheric Environment 2002, 36:3615-3627.
332. Westbury, P.S., Miles, S.D., Stathopoulos, T., 2002. CFD application on the evaluation of pedestrian-level winds. In: Workshop on Impact of Wind and Storm on City Life and Built Environment. Cost Action C14, CSTB, June 3-4, Nantes, France.
333. White R.B. The Changing Appearance of Buildings 1967, Her Majesty's Stationary Office, London, 64p.
334. Wieringa J. Updating the Davenport roughness classification. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics 1992, 41-44:357-368.
335. Wilcox D.C. Reassessment of the scale-determining equation for advanced turbulence models. AIAA Journal 1988, 26(11):1299-1310.
336. Willemsen E., Wisse J.A. Accuracy of assessment of wind speed in the built environment. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics 2002, 90:1183-1190.
337. Willemsen E., Wisse J.A. Design for wind comfort in The Netherlands: procedures, criteria and open research issues. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics 2007, 95(9-11):1541-1550.
338. Williams C.D., Wardlaw R.L. Determination of the pedestrian wind environment in the city of Ottawa using wind tunnel and field measurements. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics 1992, 41(1-3):255-266.
339. Wilson D.J., Lamb B. Dispersion of exhaust gases from roof level stacks and vents on a laboratory building. Atmospheric Environment 1994, 28(19):3099-3111.
340. Wise, A.F.E., 1970. Wind effects due to groups of buildings. In: Proceedings of the Royal Society Symposium Architectural Aerodynamics. Session 3. Effect of Buildings on the Local wind, London. pp. 26-27 February.
341. Wisse, J.A., Verkaik, J.W., Willemsen, E., 2007. Climatology aspects of a wind comfort code. In: 12th International Conference on Wind Engineering (12ICWE), Cairns, Australia.
342. Wisse, J.A., Willemsen, E., 2003. Standardization of wind comfort evaluation in the Netherlands. In: 11th International Conference on Wind Engineering, (11ICWE), Lubbock, Texas.
343. Wu H.Q., Stathopoulos T. Application of infrared thermography for pedestrian wind evaluation. Journal of Engineering Mechanics-ASCE 1997, 123(10):978-985.
344. Xie Z.T., Castro I.P. Large-eddy simulation for flow and dispersion in urban streets. Atmospheric Environment 2009, 43:2174-2185.
345. Yamada M., Uematsu Y., Sasaki R. A visual technique for the evaluation of the pedestrian-level wind environment around buildings by using infrared thermography. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics 1996, 65(1-3):261-271.
346. Yang X., Chen Q., Zhang J.S., Magee R., Zeng J., Shaw C.Y. Numerical simulation of VOC emissions from dry materials. Building and Environment 2001, 36(10):1099-1107.
347. Yang Y., Gu M., Chen S., Jin X. New inflow boundary conditions for modelling the neutral equilibrium atmospheric boundary layer in computational wind engineering. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics 2009, 97(2):88-95.
348. Yoshida, S., 2011. CFD analysis to investigate the effect of changing wind direction with switching route direction on thermal comfort for pedestrian. In: Proceedings of the 13th International Conference on Wind Engineering (ICWE13), Amsterdam.
349. Yoshie R., Jiang G., Shirasawa T., Chung J. CFD simulations of gas dispersion around high-rise building in non-isothermal boundary layer. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics 2011, 99:279-288.
350. Yoshie R., Mochida A., Tominaga Y., Kataoka H., Harimoto K., Nozu T., Shirasawa T. Cooperative project for CFD prediction of pedestrian wind environment in the Architectural Institute of Japan. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics 2007, 95(9-11):1551-1578.
351. Zeman O., Jensen N.O. Modification of turbulence characteristics in flow over hills. Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society 1987, 113(475):55-80.
352. Zhai Z., Chen Q., Haves P., Klems J.H. On approaches to couple energy simulation and computational fluid dynamics programs. Building and Environment 2002, 37(8-9):857-864.
353. Zhai Z., Chen Q.Y. Numerical determination and treatment of convective heat transfer coefficients in the coupled building energy and CFD simulation. Building and Environment 2004, 39:1001-1009.
354. Zhai Z. Applications of computational fluid dynamics in building design: aspects and trends. Indoor and Built Environment 2006, 15(4):305-313.