Cost Effectiveness of Screening Strategies for Early Identification of HIV and HCV Infection in Injection Drug Users

PLoS ONE

Volumn 7, Issue 9, 2012, Pages

  Cipriano, Lauren E ^a   Zaric, Gregory S ^b   Holodniy, Mark ^c,d,e   Bendavid, Eran ^d,e   Owens, Douglas K ^c,d   Brandeau, Margaret L ^a  

^a Stanford University   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF WESTERN ONTARIO   (Canada)

^c VA PALO ALTO HEALTH CARE SYSTEM   (United States)

^d STANFORD UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^e STANFORD UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

HEPATITIS C ANTIBODY; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS ANTIBODY; VIRUS RNA;

ADOLESCENT; ADULT; ANTIBODY DETECTION; ARTICLE; COMPARTMENT MODEL; CONTROLLED STUDY; COST BENEFIT ANALYSIS; COST EFFECTIVENESS ANALYSIS; EARLY DIAGNOSIS; HEALTH CARE COST; HEPATITIS C; HIGH RISK BEHAVIOR; HUMAN; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS INFECTION; IMMUNOASSAY; INTRAVENOUS DRUG ABUSE; OPIATE SUBSTITUTION TREATMENT; QUALITY ADJUSTED LIFE YEAR; SCREENING TEST; VIRUS IDENTIFICATION; VIRUS TRANSMISSION;

ADOLESCENT; ADULT; ANTIBODIES, VIRAL; COST-BENEFIT ANALYSIS; DRUG USERS; HEPACIVIRUS; HEPATITIS C; HIV; HIV INFECTIONS; HUMANS; MALE; MASS SCREENING; MIDDLE AGED; MODELS, ECONOMIC; NEEDLE SHARING; OPIATE SUBSTITUTION TREATMENT; QUALITY-ADJUSTED LIFE YEARS; RISK ASSESSMENT; RNA, VIRAL; URBAN HEALTH SERVICES;

HEPATITIS C VIRUS;

EID: 84866507572     PISSN: None     EISSN: 19326203     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0045176     Document Type: Article

References (159)

1. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) (2008) Estimates of New HIV Infections in the United States.
2. Management of hepatitis C: 2002. NIH Consens State Sci Statements 19: 1-46.
3. Graham CS, Baden LR, Yu E, Mrus JM, Carnie J, et al. (2001) Influence of human immunodeficiency virus infection on the course of hepatitis C virus infection: a meta-analysis. Clin Infect Dis 33: 562-569.
4. Thein HH, Yi Q, Dore GJ, Krahn MD, (2008) Natural history of hepatitis C virus infection in HIV-infected individuals and the impact of HIV in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy: a meta-analysis. AIDS 22: 1979-1991.
5. Chen TY, Ding EL, Seage Iii GR, Kim AY, (2009) Meta-analysis: increased mortality associated with hepatitis C in HIV-infected persons is unrelated to HIV disease progression. Clin Infect Dis 49: 1605-1615.
6. Thomas DL, Astemborski J, Rai RM, Anania FA, Schaeffer M, et al. (2000) The natural history of hepatitis C virus infection: host, viral, and environmental factors. JAMA 284: 450-456.
7. Maheshwari A, Ray S, Thuluvath PJ, (2008) Acute hepatitis C. Lancet. 372: 321-332.
8. Laguno M, Cifuentes C, Murillas J, Veloso S, Larrousse M, et al. (2009) Randomized trial comparing pegylated interferon alpha-2b versus pegylated interferon alpha-2a, both plus ribavirin, to treat chronic hepatitis C in human immunodeficiency virus patients. Hepatology 49: 22-31.
9. Pilcher CD, Eaton L, Kalichman S, Bisol C, de Souza Rda S, (2006) Approaching "HIV elimination": interventions for acute HIV infection. Curr HIV/AIDS Rep 3: 160-168.
10. Long EF, (2011) HIV screening via fourth-generation immunoassay or nucleic acid amplification test in the United States: a cost-effectiveness analysis. PLoS One 6: e27625.
11. Pilcher CD, Tien HC, Eron JJ Jr, Vernazza PL, Leu SY, et al. (2004) Brief but efficient: acute HIV infection and the sexual transmission of HIV. J Infect Dis 189: 1785-1792.
12. Prabhu VS, Hutchinson AB, Farnham PG, Sansom SL, (2009) Sexually acquired HIV infections in the United States due to acute-phase HIV transmission: an update. AIDS 23: 1792-1794.
13. Kerndt PR, Dubrow R, Aynalem G, Mayer KH, Beckwith C, et al. (2009) Strategies used in the detection of acute/early HIV infections. The NIMH Multisite Acute HIV Infection Study: I. AIDS Behav 13: 1037-1045.
14. Pilcher CD, Eron JJ Jr, Galvin S, Gay C, Cohen MS, (2004) Acute HIV revisited: new opportunities for treatment and prevention. J Clin Invest 113: 937-945.
15. Sterne JA, May M, Costagliola D, de Wolf F, Phillips AN, et al. (2009) Timing of initiation of antiretroviral therapy in AIDS-free HIV-1-infected patients: a collaborative analysis of 18 HIV cohort studies. Lancet 373: 1352-1363.
16. Emery S, Neuhaus JA, Phillips AN, Babiker A, Cohen CJ, et al. (2008) Major clinical outcomes in antiretroviral therapy (ART)-naive participants and in those not receiving ART at baseline in the SMART study. J Infect Dis 197: 1133-1144.
17. Lewden C, Chene G, Morlat P, Raffi F, Dupon M, et al. (2007) HIV-infected adults with a CD4 cell count greater than 500 cells/mm3 on long-term combination antiretroviral therapy reach same mortality rates as the general population. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 46: 72-77.
18. McHutchison JG, Lawitz EJ, Shiffman ML, Muir AJ, Galler GW, et al. (2009) Peginterferon alfa-2b or alfa-2a with ribavirin for treatment of hepatitis C infection. N Engl J Med 361: 580-593.
19. Hadziyannis SJ, Sette H Jr, Morgan TR, Balan V, Diago M, et al. (2004) Peginterferon-alpha2a and ribavirin combination therapy in chronic hepatitis C: a randomized study of treatment duration and ribavirin dose. Ann Intern Med 140: 346-355.
20. Torriani FJ, Rodriguez-Torres M, Rockstroh JK, Lissen E, Gonzalez-Garcia J, et al. (2004) Peginterferon Alfa-2a plus ribavirin for chronic hepatitis C virus infection in HIV-infected patients. N Engl J Med 351: 438-450.
21. Bacon BR, Gordon SC, Lawitz E, Marcellin P, Vierling JM, et al. (2011) Boceprevir for previously treated chronic HCV genotype 1 infection. N Engl J Med 364: 1207-1217.
22. Poordad F, McCone J Jr, Bacon BR, Bruno S, Manns MP, et al. (2011) Boceprevir for untreated chronic HCV genotype 1 infection. N Engl J Med 364: 1195-1206.
23. Chary A, Holodniy M, (2010) Recent advances in hepatitis C virus treatment: review of HCV protease inhibitor clinical trials. Rev Recent Clin Trials 5: 158-173.
24. Liu S, Cipriano LE, Holodniy M, Owens DK, Goldhaber-Fiebert JD (2011) New Protease Inhibitors for the Treatment of Chronic Hepatitis C: A Cost-Effectiveness Analysis. Under review.
25. Alberti A, Boccato S, Vario A, Benvegnu L, (2002) Therapy of acute hepatitis C. Hepatology. 36: S195-200.
26. Licata A, Di Bona D, Schepis F, Shahied L, Craxi A, et al. (2003) When and how to treat acute hepatitis C? J Hepatol 39: 1056-1062.
27. Wiegand J, Deterding K, Cornberg M, Wedemeyer H, (2008) Treatment of acute hepatitis C: the success of monotherapy with (pegylated) interferon alpha. J Antimicrob Chemother 62: 860-865.
28. Dore GJ, Hellard M, Matthews G, Grebely J, Haber PS, et al. (2009) Effective Treatment of Injecting Drug Users With Recently Acquired Hepatitis C Virus Infection. Gastroenterology.
29. Wiegand J, Buggisch P, Boecher W, Zeuzem S, Gelbmann CM, et al. (2006) Early monotherapy with pegylated interferon alpha-2b for acute hepatitis C infection: the HEP-NET acute-HCV-II study. Hepatology 43: 250-256.
30. Dominguez S, Ghosn J, Valantin MA, Schruniger A, Simon A, et al. (2006) Efficacy of early treatment of acute hepatitis C infection with pegylated interferon and ribavirin in HIV-infected patients. AIDS 20: 1157-1161.
31. Vogel M, Nattermann J, Baumgarten A, Klausen G, Bieniek B, et al. (2006) Pegylated interferon-alpha for the treatment of sexually transmitted acute hepatitis C in HIV-infected individuals. Antivir Ther 11: 1097-1101.
32. Gilleece YC, Browne RE, Asboe D, Atkins M, Mandalia S, et al. (2005) Transmission of hepatitis C virus among HIV-positive homosexual men and response to a 24-week course of pegylated interferon and ribavirin. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 40: 41-46.
33. Vogel M, Dominguez S, Bhagani S, Azwa A, Page E,et al. Treatment of acute HCV infection in HIV-positive patients: experience from a multicentre European cohort. Antivir Ther 15: 267-279.
34. Zaric GS, Barnett PG, Brandeau ML, (2000) HIV transmission and the cost-effectiveness of methadone maintenance. Am J Public Health 90: 1100-1111.
35. Long EF, Brandeau ML, Galvin CM, Vinichenko T, Tole SP, et al. (2006) Effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of strategies to expand antiretroviral therapy in St. Petersburg, Russia. AIDS 20: 2207-2215.
36. Alistar SS, Owens DK, Brandeau ML (2011 (In Press)) Effectiveness and cost effectiveness of expanding harm reduction and antiretroviral therapy in a mixed HIV epidemic: An analysis for Ukraine. PLoS Medicine.
37. Barnett PG, Zaric GS, Brandeau ML, (2001) The cost-effectiveness of buprenorphine maintenance therapy for opiate addiction in the United States. Addiction 96: 1267-1278.
38. Sorensen JL, Copeland AL, (2000) Drug abuse treatment as an HIV prevention strategy: a review. Drug Alcohol Depend 59: 17-31.
39. Gibson DR, Flynn NM, McCarthy JJ, (1999) Effectiveness of methadone treatment in reducing HIV risk behavior and HIV seroconversion among injecting drug users. AIDS 13: 1807-1818.
40. Connock M, Juarez-Garcia A, Jowett S, Frew E, Liu Z, et al. (2007) Methadone and buprenorphine for the management of opioid dependence: a systematic review and economic evaluation. Health Technol Assess 11: 1-171, iii-iv.
41. Lott DC, Strain EC, Brooner RK, Bigelow GE, Johnson RE, (2006) HIV risk behaviors during pharmacologic treatment for opioid dependence: a comparison of levomethadyl acetate [corrected] buprenorphine, and methadone. J Subst Abuse Treat 31: 187-194.
42. Gold MR, Siegel JE, Russell LB, Weinstein MC, editors (1996) Cost-Effectiveness in Health and Medicine. New York: Oxford University Press.
43. Brady JE, Friedman SR, Cooper HL, Flom PL, Tempalski B, et al. (2008) Estimating the prevalence of injection drug users in the U.S. and in large U.S. metropolitan areas from 1992 to 2002. J Urban Health 85: 323-351.
44. Amon JJ, Garfein RS, Ahdieh-Grant L, Armstrong GL, Ouellet LJ, et al. (2008) Prevalence of hepatitis C virus infection among injection drug users in the United States, 1994-2004. Clin Infect Dis 46: 1852-1858.
45. McQuillan G, Kruszon-Moran D (2008) HIV Infection in the United States Household Population Aged 18-49 Years: Results from 1999-2006. Hyattsville, MD: Division of Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys, National Center for Health Statistics.
46. Armstrong GL, Wasley A, Simard EP, McQuillan GM, Kuhnert WL, et al. (2006) The prevalence of hepatitis C virus infection in the United States, 1999 through 2002. Ann Intern Med 144: 705-714.
47. Goedert JJ, Fung MW, Felton S, Battjes RJ, Engels EA, (2001) Cause-specific mortality associated with HIV and HTLV-II infections among injecting drug users in the USA. AIDS 15: 1295-1302.
48. US. Census Bureau Population Division (September 2009) Resident Population Estimates for the 2000s: Monthly Postcensal Resident Population, by single year of age, sex, race, and Hispanic origin.
49. Arias E (2007) United States Life Tables, 2004. National Vital Statistics Reports, National Center for Health Statistics 56.
50. Degenhardt L, Hall W, Warner-Smith M, (2006) Using cohort studies to estimate mortality among injecting drug users that is not attributable to AIDS. Sex Transm Infect 82Suppl 3: iii56-63.
51. Zanis DA, Woody GE, (1998) One-year mortality rates following methadone treatment discharge. Drug Alcohol Depend 52: 257-260.
52. Thiede H, Hagan H, Campbell JV, Strathdee SA, Bailey SL, et al. (2007) Prevalence and correlates of indirect sharing practices among young adult injection drug users in five U.S. cities. Drug Alcohol Depend 91Suppl 1: S39-47.
53. Hagan H, Campbell J, Thiede H, Strathdee S, Ouellet L, et al. (2006) Self-reported hepatitis C virus antibody status and risk behavior in young injectors. Public Health Rep 121: 710-719.
54. Kapadia F, Latka MH, Hudson SM, Golub ET, Campbell JV, et al. (2007) Correlates of consistent condom use with main partners by partnership patterns among young adult male injection drug users from five US cities. Drug Alcohol Depend 91Suppl 1: S56-63.
55. Kresina TF, (2007) Medication assisted treatment of drug abuse and dependence: global availability and utilization. Recent Pat Antiinfect Drug Discov 2: 79-86.
56. Kimber J, Copeland L, Hickman M, Macleod J, McKenzie J, et al. (2010) Survival and cessation in injecting drug users: prospective observational study of outcomes and effect of opiate substitution treatment. BMJ 341: c3172.
57. Oviedo-Joekes E, Brissette S, Marsh DC, Lauzon P, Guh D, et al. (2009) Diacetylmorphine versus methadone for the treatment of opioid addiction. N Engl J Med 361: 777-786.
58. National Opinion Research Center General Social Surveys (GSS), 1972-2006. The National Data Program for the Sciences, University of Chicago.
59. Semaan S, Neumann MS, Hutchins K, D'Anna LH, Kamb ML, (2010) Brief counseling for reducing sexual risk and bacterial STIs among drug users-results from project RESPECT. Drug Alcohol Depend 106: 7-15.
60. Johnson RE, Chutuape MA, Strain EC, Walsh SL, Stitzer ML, et al. (2000) A comparison of levomethadyl acetate, buprenorphine, and methadone for opioid dependence. N Engl J Med 343: 1290-1297.
61. Sullivan LE, Moore BA, Chawarski MC, Pantalon MV, Barry D, et al. (2008) Buprenorphine/naloxone treatment in primary care is associated with decreased human immunodeficiency virus risk behaviors. J Subst Abuse Treat 35: 87-92.
62. Bayoumi AM, Zaric GS, (2008) The cost-effectiveness of Vancouver's supervised injection facility. CMAJ 179: 1143-1151.
63. Marshall BD, Wood E, Zhang R, Tyndall MW, Montaner JS, et al. (2009) Condom use among injection drug users accessing a supervised injecting facility. Sex Transm Infect 85: 121-126.
64. Kapadia F, Latka MH, Wu Y, Strathdee SA, Mackesy-Amiti ME, et al. (2009) Longitudinal Determinants of Consistent Condom Use by Partner Type Among Young Injection Drug Users: The Role of Personal and Partner Characteristics. AIDS Behav.
65. Booth RE, Kwiatkowski CF, Chitwood DD, (2000) Sex related HIV risk behaviors: differential risks among injection drug users, crack smokers, and injection drug users who smoke crack. Drug Alcohol Depend 58: 219-226.
66. Marks G, Crepaz N, Senterfitt JW, Janssen RS, (2005) Meta-analysis of high-risk sexual behavior in persons aware and unaware they are infected with HIV in the United States: implications for HIV prevention programs. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 39: 446-453.
67. Weinhardt LS, Kelly JA, Brondino MJ, Rotheram-Borus MJ, Kirshenbaum SB, et al. (2004) HIV transmission risk behavior among men and women living with HIV in 4 cities in the United States. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 36: 1057-1066.
68. Brogly SB, Bruneau J, Lamothe F, Vincelette J, Franco EL, (2002) HIV-positive notification and behavior changes in Montreal injection drug users. AIDS Educ Prev 14: 17-28.
69. Tsui JI, Vittinghoff E, Hahn JA, Evans JL, Davidson PJ, et al. (2009) Risk behaviors after hepatitis C virus seroconversion in young injection drug users in San Francisco. Drug Alcohol Depend 105: 160-163.
70. Ompad DC, Fuller CM, Vlahov D, Thomas D, Strathdee SA, (2002) Lack of behavior change after disclosure of hepatitis C virus infection among young injection drug users in Baltimore, Maryland. Clin Infect Dis 35: 783-788.
71. Cox J, Morissette C, De P, Tremblay C, Allard R, et al. (2009) Access to sterile injecting equipment is more important than awareness of HCV status for injection risk behaviors among drug users. Subst Use Misuse 44: 548-568.
72. Pilcher CD, Fiscus SA, Nguyen TQ, Foust E, Wolf L, et al. (2005) Detection of acute infections during HIV testing in North Carolina. N Engl J Med 352: 1873-1883.
73. Farnham PG, Hutchinson AB, Sansom SL, Branson BM, (2008) Comparing the costs of HIV screening strategies and technologies in health-care settings. Public Health Rep 123Suppl 3: 51-62.
74. Juusola JL, Brandeau ML, Long EF, Owens DK, Bendavid E, (2012) The cost-effectiveness of symptom-based testing and routine screening for acute HIV infection in men who have sex with men in the USA. AIDS 25: 1779-1787.
75. Office of the Medical Director (Updated January 2010) Diagnosis and Management of Acute HIV Infection. New York State Department of Health AIDS Institute. http://www.hivguidelines.org/clinical-guidelines/adults/diagnosis-and-management-of-acute-hiv-infection/.
76. Lundgren JD, Babiker A, El-Sadr W, Emery S, Grund B, et al. (2008) Inferior clinical outcome of the CD4+ cell count-guided antiretroviral treatment interruption strategy in the SMART study: role of CD4+ Cell counts and HIV RNA levels during follow-up. J Infect Dis 197: 1145-1155.
77. El-Sadr WM, Lundgren JD, Neaton JD, Gordin F, Abrams D, et al. (2006) CD4+ count-guided interruption of antiretroviral treatment. N Engl J Med 355: 2283-2296.
78. Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents (March 27, 2012) Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in HIV-1-infected adults and adolescents. Available: http://www.aidsinfo.nih.gov/ContentFiles/AdultandAdolescentGL.pdf. Accessed: 2012 Jun 27.
79. Long EF, Brandeau ML, Owens DK, (2009) Potential population health outcomes and expenditures of HIV vaccination strategies in the United States. Vaccine 27: 5402-5410.
80. Porco TC, Martin JN, Page-Shafer KA, Cheng A, Charlebois E, et al. (2004) Decline in HIV infectivity following the introduction of highly active antiretroviral therapy. AIDS 18: 81-88.
81. Granich RM, Gilks CF, Dye C, De Cock KM, Williams BG, (2009) Universal voluntary HIV testing with immediate antiretroviral therapy as a strategy for elimination of HIV transmission: a mathematical model. Lancet 373: 48-57.
82. Del Romero J, Castilla J, Hernando V, Rodriguez C, Garcia S, (2010) Combined antiretroviral treatment and heterosexual transmission of HIV-1: cross sectional and prospective cohort study. BMJ 340: c2205.
83. Castilla J, Del Romero J, Hernando V, Marincovich B, Garcia S, et al. (2005) Effectiveness of highly active antiretroviral therapy in reducing heterosexual transmission of HIV. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 40: 96-101.
84. Cohen MS, Chen YQ, McCauley M, Gamble T, Hosseinipour MC, et al. (2011) Prevention of HIV-1 infection with early antiretroviral therapy. N Engl J Med 365: 493-505.
85. Anglemyer A, Rutherford GW, Baggaley RC, Egger M, Siegfried N (2011) Antiretroviral therapy for prevention of HIV transmission in HIV-discordant couples. Cochrane Database Syst Rev: CD009153.
86. Donnell D, Baeten JM, Kiarie J, Thomas KK, Stevens W, et al. (2011) Heterosexual HIV-1 transmission after initiation of antiretroviral therapy: a prospective cohort analysis. Lancet 375: 2092-2098.
87. Bonkovsky HL, Tice AD, Yapp RG, Bodenheimer HC Jr, Monto A, et al. (2008) Efficacy and safety of peginterferon alfa-2a/ribavirin in methadone maintenance patients: randomized comparison of direct observed therapy and self-administration. Am J Gastroenterol 103: 2757-2765.
88. Van Thiel DH, Anantharaju A, Creech S, (2003) Response to treatment of hepatitis C in individuals with a recent history of intravenous drug abuse. Am J Gastroenterol 98: 2281-2288.
89. Bureau of Economic Analysis U.S. Department of Commerce (2009) Implicit Price Deflators for Gross Domestic Product.
90. Meara E, White C, Cutler DM, (2004) Trends in medical spending by age, 1963-2000. Health Aff (Millwood) 23: 176-183.
91. Hogan C, Lunney J, Gabel J, Lynn J, (2001) Medicare beneficiaries' costs of care in the last year of life. Health Aff (Millwood) 20: 188-195.
92. Mark TL, Woody GE, Juday T, Kleber HD, (2001) The economic costs of heroin addiction in the United States. Drug Alcohol Depend 61: 195-206.
93. Zarkin GA, Dunlap LJ, Homsi G, (2004) The substance abuse services cost analysis program (SASCAP): a new method for estimating drug treatment services costs. Evaluation and Program Planning 27: 35-43.
94. Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services (2009) Medicare Fee-for-Service Payment Schedule.
95. Schackman BR, Gebo KA, Walensky RP, Losina E, Muccio T, et al. (2006) The lifetime cost of current human immunodeficiency virus care in the United States. Med Care 44: 990-997.
96. Singer ME, Younossi ZM, (2001) Cost effectiveness of screening for hepatitis C virus in asymptomatic, average-risk adults. Am J Med 111: 614-621.
97. Wong JB, (2006) Hepatitis C: cost of illness and considerations for the economic evaluation of antiviral therapies. Pharmacoeconomics 24: 661-672.
98. Mitra D, Davis KL, Beam C, Medjedovic J, Rustgi V, (2010) Treatment Patterns and Adherence among Patients with Chronic Hepatitis C Virus in a US Managed Care Population. Value Health 13(4): 479-86.
99. U.S. Preventive Services Task Force (2004) Screening for hepatitis C virus infection in adults: recommendation statement. Ann Intern Med 140: 462-464.
100. Nyman JA, Barleen NA, Dowd BE, Russell DW, Coons SJ, et al. (2007) Quality-of-life weights for the US population: self-reported health status and priority health conditions, by demographic characteristics. Med Care 45: 618-628.
101. Sullivan PW, Ghushchyan V, (2006) Preference-Based EQ-5D index scores for chronic conditions in the United States. Med Decis Making 26: 410-420.
102. Dijkgraaf MG, van der Zanden BP, de Borgie CA, Blanken P, van Ree JM, et al. (2005) Cost utility analysis of co-prescribed heroin compared with methadone maintenance treatment in heroin addicts in two randomised trials. BMJ 330: 1297.
103. Tengs TO, Lin TH, (2002) A meta-analysis of utility estimates for HIV/AIDS. Med Decis Making 22: 475-481.
104. Simpson KN, Luo MP, Chumney E, Sun E, Brun S, et al. (2004) Cost-effectiveness of lopinavir/ritonavir versus nelfinavir as the first-line highly active antiretroviral therapy regimen for HIV infection. HIV Clin Trials 5: 294-304.
105. Schackman BR, Goldie SJ, Freedberg KA, Losina E, Brazier J, et al. (2002) Comparison of health state utilities using community and patient preference weights derived from a survey of patients with HIV/AIDS. Med Decis Making 22: 27-38.
106. Kauf TL, Roskell N, Shearer A, Gazzard B, Mauskopf J, et al. (2008) A predictive model of health state utilities for HIV patients in the modern era of highly active antiretroviral therapy. Value Health 11: 1144-1153.
107. Thein HH, Krahn M, Kaldor JM, Dore GJ, (2005) Estimation of utilities for chronic hepatitis C from SF-36 scores. Am J Gastroenterol 100: 643-651.
108. Cotler SJ, Patil R, McNutt RA, Speroff T, Banaad-Omiotek G, et al. (2001) Patients' values for health states associated with hepatitis C and physicians' estimates of those values. Am J Gastroenterol 96: 2730-2736.
109. Honiden S, Sundaram V, Nease RF, Holodniy M, Lazzeroni LC, et al. (2006) The effect of diagnosis with HIV infection on health-related quality of Life. Qual Life Res 15: 69-82.
110. Rodger AJ, Jolley D, Thompson SC, Lanigan A, Crofts N, (1999) The impact of diagnosis of hepatitis C virus on quality of life. Hepatology 30: 1299-1301.
111. Kelly JA, Morin SF, Remien RH, Steward WT, Higgins JA, et al. (2009) Lessons learned about behavioral science and acute/early HIV infection. The NIMH Multisite Acute HIV Infection Study: V. AIDS Behav 13: 1068-1074.
112. Stekler J, Swenson PD, Wood RW, Handsfield HH, Golden MR, (2005) Targeted screening for primary HIV infection through pooled HIV-RNA testing in men who have sex with men. AIDS 19: 1323-1325.
113. Pilcher CD, McPherson JT, Leone PA, Smurzynski M, Owen-O'Dowd J, et al. (2002) Real-time, universal screening for acute HIV infection in a routine HIV counseling and testing population. JAMA 288: 216-221.
114. Alter MJ (2005) Integrating risk history screening and HCV testing into clinical and public health settings. Am Fam Physician 72: 576, 579.
115. Recommendations for prevention and control of hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection and HCV-related chronic disease. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. MMWR Recomm Rep 47: 1-39.
116. Sanders GD, Bayoumi AM, Sundaram V, Bilir SP, Neukermans CP, et al. (2005) Cost-effectiveness of screening for HIV in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy. N Engl J Med 352: 570-585.
117. Paltiel AD, Walensky RP, Schackman BR, Seage GR 3rd, Mercincavage LM, et al (2006) Expanded HIV screening in the United States: effect on clinical outcomes, HIV transmission, and costs. Ann Intern Med 145: 797-806.
118. Stein K, Dalziel K, Walker A, Jenkins B, Round A, et al. (2003) Screening for hepatitis C in genito-urinary medicine clinics: a cost utility analysis. J Hepatol 39: 814-825.
119. Stein K, Dalziel K, Walker A, Jenkins B, Round A, et al. (2004) Screening for Hepatitis C in injecting drug users: a cost utility analysis. J Public Health (Oxf) 26: 61-71.
120. Thompson Coon J, Castelnuovo E, Pitt M, Cramp M, Siebert U, et al. (2006) Case finding for hepatitis C in primary care: a cost utility analysis. Fam Pract 23: 393-406.
121. Sutton AJ, Edmunds WJ, Sweeting MJ, Gill ON, (2008) The cost-effectiveness of screening and treatment for hepatitis C in prisons in England and Wales: a cost-utility analysis. J Viral Hepat 15: 797-808.
122. Tramarin A, Gennaro N, Compostella FA, Gallo C, Wendelaar Bonga LJ, et al. (2008) HCV screening to enable early treatment of hepatitis C: a mathematical model to analyse costs and outcomes in two populations. Curr Pharm Des 14: 1655-1660.
123. Grebely J, Conway B, Raffa JD, Lai C, Krajden M, et al. (2006) Hepatitis C virus reinfection in injection drug users. Hepatology 44: 1139-1145.
124. Burt RD, Thiede H, Hagan H, (2009) Serosorting for hepatitis C status in the sharing of injection equipment among Seattle area injection drug users. Drug Alcohol Depend 105: 215-220.
125. Mizuno Y, Purcell DW, Latka MH, Metsch LR, Ding H, et al. (2010) Is sexual serosorting occurring among HIV-positive injection drug users? Comparison between those with HIV-positive partners only, HIV-negative partners only, and those with any partners of unknown status. AIDS Behav 14: 92-102.
126. Steward WT, Remien RH, Higgins JA, Dubrow R, Pinkerton SD, et al. (2009) Behavior change following diagnosis with acute/early HIV infection-a move to serosorting with other HIV-infected individuals. The NIMH Multisite Acute HIV Infection Study: III. AIDS Behav 13: 1054-1060.
127. Patel P, Mackellar D, Simmons P, Uniyal A, Gallagher K,et al. Detecting acute human immunodeficiency virus infection using 3 different screening immunoassays and nucleic acid amplification testing for human immunodeficiency virus RNA, 2006-2008. Arch Intern Med 170: 66-74.
128. Stekler JD, Swenson PD, Coombs RW, Dragavon J, Thomas KK, et al. (2009) HIV testing in a high-incidence population: is antibody testing alone good enough? Clin Infect Dis 49: 444-453.
129. Hightow-Weidman LB, Golin CE, Green K, Shaw EN, MacDonald PD, et al. (2009) Identifying people with acute HIV infection: demographic features, risk factors, and use of health care among individuals with AHI in North Carolina. AIDS Behav 13: 1075-1083.
130. Beckwith CG, Cornwall AH, Dubrow R, Chapin K, Ducharme R, et al. (2009) Identifying acute HIV infection in Rhode Island. Med Health R I 92: 231-233.
131. Dubrow R, Sikkema KJ, Mayer KH, Bruce RD, Julian P, et al. (2009) Diagnosis of acute HIV infection in Connecticut. Conn Med 73: 325-331.
132. Brown LS Jr, Kritz SA, Goldsmith RJ, Bini EJ, Rotrosen J, et al. (2006) Characteristics of substance abuse treatment programs providing services for HIV/AIDS, hepatitis C virus infection, and sexually transmitted infections: the National Drug Abuse Treatment Clinical Trials Network. J Subst Abuse Treat 30: 315-321.
133. Knudsen HK, Oser CB, (2009) Availability of HIV-related health services in adolescent substance abuse treatment programs. AIDS Care 21: 1238-1246.
134. Strauss SM, Astone-Twerell JM, Munoz-Plaza C, Des Jarlais DC, Gwadz M, et al. (2006) Hepatitis C knowledge among staff in U.S. drug treatment programs. J Drug Educ 36: 141-158.
135. Remien RH, Higgins JA, Correale J, Bauermeister J, Dubrow R, et al. (2009) Lack of understanding of acute HIV infection among newly-infected persons-implications for prevention and public health: The NIMH Multisite Acute HIV Infection Study: II. AIDS Behav 13: 1046-1053.
136. Report of the workgroup on intravenous drug abuse (1988) Report of the Second Public Health Service AIDS Prevention and Control Conference. Public Health Rep 103Suppl 1: 66-71.
137. Tempalski B, Lieb S, Cleland CM, Cooper H, Brady JE, et al. (2009) HIV prevalence rates among injection drug users in 96 large US metropolitan areas, 1992-2002. J Urban Health 86: 132-154.
138. Alary M, Joly JR, Vincelette J, Lavoie R, Turmel B, et al. (2005) Lack of evidence of sexual transmission of hepatitis C virus in a prospective cohort study of men who have sex with men. Am J Public Health 95: 502-505.
139. Rauch A, Rickenbach M, Weber R, Hirschel B, Tarr PE, et al. (2005) Unsafe sex and increased incidence of hepatitis C virus infection among HIV-infected men who have sex with men: the Swiss HIV Cohort Study. Clin Infect Dis 41: 395-402.
140. Stroffolini T, Lorenzoni U, Menniti-Ippolito F, Infantolino D, Chiaramonte M, (2001) Hepatitis C virus infection in spouses: sexual transmission or common exposure to the same risk factors? Am J Gastroenterol 96: 3138-3141.
141. Vandelli C, Renzo F, Romano L, Tisminetzky S, De Palma M, et al. (2004) Lack of evidence of sexual transmission of hepatitis C among monogamous couples: results of a 10-year prospective follow-up study. Am J Gastroenterol 99: 855-859.
142. Kao JH, Liu CJ, Chen PJ, Chen W, Lai MY, et al. (2000) Low incidence of hepatitis C virus transmission between spouses: a prospective study. J Gastroenterol Hepatol 15: 391-395.
143. Sasase N, Kim SR, Kudo M, Kim KI, Taniguchi M, et al. (2010) Outcome and early viral dynamics with viral mutation in PEG-IFN/RBV therapy for chronic hepatitis in patients with high viral loads of serum HCV RNA genotype 1b. Intervirology 53: 49-54.
144. Ferenci P, (2004) Predicting the therapeutic response in patients with chronic hepatitis C: the role of viral kinetic studies. J Antimicrob Chemother 53: 15-18.
145. Bailey SL, Ouellet LJ, Mackesy-Amiti ME, Golub ET, Hagan H, et al. (2007) Perceived risk, peer influences, and injection partner type predict receptive syringe sharing among young adult injection drug users in five U.S. cities. Drug Alcohol Depend 91Suppl 1: S18-29.
146. Heller DI, Paone D, Siegler A, Karpati A, (2009) The syringe gap: an assessment of sterile syringe need and acquisition among syringe exchange program participants in New York City. Harm Reduct J 6: 1.
147. (2000) Preventing blood-borne infections among injection drug users: A comprehensive approach. Academy for Educational Development.
148. Booth RE, Campbell BK, Mikulich-Gilbertson SK, C JT, Choi D, et al. (2010) Reducing HIV-Related Risk Behaviors Among Injection Drug Users in Residential Detoxification. AIDS Behav.
149. Beardsley M, Deren S, Tortu S, Goldstein MF, Ziek K, et al. (1999) Trends in injection risk behaviors in a sample of New York City injection drug users: 1992-1995. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr Hum Retrovirol 20: 283-289.
150. Buchanan D, Tooze JA, Shaw S, Kinzly M, Heimer R, et al. (2006) Demographic, HIV risk behavior, and health status characteristics of "crack" cocaine injectors compared to other injection drug users in three New England cities. Drug Alcohol Depend 81: 221-229.
151. Longshore D, Annon J, Anglin MD, (1998) Long-term trends in self-reported HIV risk behavior: injection drug users in Los Angeles, 1987 through 1995. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr Hum Retrovirol 18: 64-72.
152. DeSimone J, (2005) Needle exchange programs and drug infection behavior. J Policy Anal Manage 24: 559-577.
153. Latkin CA, Buchanan AS, Metsch LR, Knight K, Latka MH, et al. (2008) Predictors of sharing injection equipment by HIV-seropositive injection drug users. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 49: 447-450.
154. Burt RD, Hagan H, Garfein RS, Sabin K, Weinbaum C, et al. (2007) Trends in hepatitis B virus, hepatitis C virus, and human immunodeficiency virus prevalence, risk behaviors, and preventive measures among Seattle injection drug users aged 18-30 years, 1994-2004. J Urban Health 84: 436-454.
155. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2004) HIV Testing Survey, 2002. Atlanta: U.S. Deptmant of Health and Human Servies, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Available: http://www.cdc.gov/hiv/stats/hasrsupp.htm.
156. Weis SH, Leschek JD, Gary PW, MD (2003) HIV Era Occupational Exposures and Risks. AIDS and Other Manifestations of HIV Infection (Fourth Edition). San Diego: Academic Press. 811-838.
157. Kaplan EH, Heimer R, (1992) A model-based estimate of HIV infectivity via needle sharing. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 5: 1116-1118.
158. Chung H, Kudo M, Kumada T, Katsushima S, Okano A, et al. (2003) Risk of HCV transmission after needlestick injury, and the efficacy of short-duration interferon administration to prevent HCV transmission to medical personnel. J Gastroenterol 38: 877-879.
159. Hamid SS, Farooqui B, Rizvi Q, Sultana T, Siddiqui AA, (1999) Risk of transmission and features of hepatitis C after needlestick injuries. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 20: 63-64.