Impaired Lung Growth After Injury in Premature Lung

Fetal and Neonatal Physiology E-Book, Fourth Edition

Volumn , Issue , 2011, Pages 1039-1047

  Albertine, Kurt H ^a,b,c   Pysher, Theodore J ^d,e  

^a School of Medicine   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF UTAH   (United States)

^c The Anatomical Record   (United States)

^d UNIVERSITY OF UTAH SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^e PRIMARY CHILDREN'S MEDICAL CENTER   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84865731093     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1016/B978-1-4160-3479-7.10095-3     Document Type: Chapter

References (145)

1. Guidelines for Perinatal Care. Elk Grove Village, IL: American Academy of Pediatrics/American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists
2. Advance report on final natality studies (1991) Mon Vital Stat Rep 40 8.
3. K.H. Albertine, D.M. Null, M.J. Dahl, et al. (2006) Lung parenchymal development is improved in preterm lambs managed by nasal continuous positive airway pressure for 21 days [abstract]. J Invest Med 54 S108.
4. R.L. Goldenberg and D.J. Rouse (1998) Prevention of premature birth. N Engl J Med 339 313-320.
5. K.J. Leveno, B.B. Little and F.G. Cunningham (1990) The national impact of ritodrine hydrochloride for inhibition of preterm labor. Obstet Gynecol 76 12-15.
6. Treatment of preterm labor with the beta-adrenergic agonist ritodrine (1992) The Canadian Preterm Labor Investigators Group. N Engl J Med 327 308-312.
7. H. Hayek (1960) The Human Lung. New York: Hafner
8. E.R. Weibel (1963) Morphometry of the Lung. New York: Academic Press
9. J.D. Crapo (1983) Morphometric characteristics of cells in the alveolar region of mammalian lungs. Am Rev Respir Dis 128 S42-S46.
10. P.H. Burri (1997) Structural aspects of prenatal and postnatal development and growth of the lung. J.A. McDonald (Eds) Lung Growth and Development New York: Marcel Dekker 1-35.
11. K.H. Albertine, M.C. Williams and D.M. Hyde (2000) Anatomy of the lungs. J.F. Murray, J.A. Nadel (Eds) Textbook of Respiratory Medicine 3rd ed Philadelphia: WB Saunders 3-33.
12. J.D. Crapo, B.E. Barry, P. Gehr, et al. (1982) Cell number and cell characteristics of the normal human lung. Am Rev Respir Dis 125 332-337.
13. R.J. King, J. Ruch, E.G. Gikas, et al. (1975) Appearance of apoproteins of pulmonary surfactant in human amniotic fluid. J Appl Physiol 39 735-741.
14. P.L. Ballard, S. Hawgood, H. Liley, et al. (1986) Regulation of pulmonary surfactant apoprotein SP 28-36 gene in fetal human lung. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 83 9527-9531.
15. H.G. Liley, S. Hawgood, G.A. Wellenstein, et al. (1987) Surfactant protein of molecular weight 28,000-36,000 in cultured human fetal lung: Cellular localization and effect of dexamethasone. Mol Endocrinol 1 205-215.
16. G.S. Pryhuber, W.M. Hull, I. Fink, et al. (1991) Ontogeny of surfactant proteins A and B in human amniotic fluid as indices of fetal lung maturity. Pediatr Res 30 597-605.
17. H.G. Liley, R.T. White, R.G. Warr, et al. (1989) Regulation of messenger RNAs for the hydrophobic surfactant proteins in human lung. J Clin Invest 83 1191-1197.
18. T. Inoue, E. Matsuura, A. Nagata, et al. (1994) Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for human pulmonary surfactant protein D. J Immunol Meth 173 157-164.
19. K. Miyamura, R. Malhotra, H.J. Hoppe, et al. (1994) Surfactant proteins A (SP-A) and D (SP-D): Levels in human amniotic fluid and localization in the fetal membranes. Biochim Biophys Acta 1210 303-307.
20. G.P.C. Clements Ja, D.F. Tierney, et al. (1972) Assessment of the risk of the respiratory-distress syndrome by a rapid test for surfactant in amniotic fluid. N Engl J Med 286 1077-1081.
21. R. Harding and S.B. Hooper (1996) Regulation of lung expansion and lung growth before birth. J Appl Physiol 81 209-224.
22. R.E. Olver and L.B. Strang (1974) Ion fluxes across the pulmonary epithelium and the secretion of lung liquid in the foetal lamb. J Physiol 241 327-357.
23. N.S. Adzick (1984) Experimental pulmonary hypoplasia and oligohydramnios: Relative contributions of lung fluid and fetal breathing movements. J Pediatr Surg 19 658-665.
24. D.L. Chapman, D.P. Carlton, D.W. Nielson, et al. (1994) Changes in lung liquid during spontaneous labor in fetal sheep. J Appl Physiol 76 523-530.
25. H. O’Brodovich, V. Hannam, M. Seear and J.B. Mullen (1990) Amiloride impairs lung liquid clearance in newborn guinea pigs. J Appl Physiol 68 1758-1762.
26. R.E. Olver, C.A. Ramsden, L.B. Strang and D.V. Walters (1986) The role of amiloride-blockable sodium transport in adrenaline-induced lung liquid reabsorption in the fetal lamb. J Physiol 376 321-340.
27. E.D. Burnard, P. Grattan-Smith, C.G. Picton-Warlow and A. Grauaug (1965) Pulmonary insufficiency in prematurity. Aust Paediatr J 1 12-38.
28. J.R. Croteau and C.D. Cook (1961) Volume-pressure and length-tension measurements in human tracheal and bronchial segments. J Appl Physiol 16 170-172.
29. L. Frank (1992) Pathophysiology of lung injury and repair: Special features of the immature lung. R.A. Polin, W.W. Fox (Eds) Fetal and Neonatal Physiology ed 2 Philadelphia: WB Saunders 914-926.
30. E.O. Reynolds, N.R. Roberton and J.S. Wigglesworth (1968) Hyaline membrane disease, respiratory distress, and surfactant deficiency. Pediatrics 42 758-768.
31. M.E. Avery and J. Mead (1959) Surface properties in relation to atelectasis and hyaline membrane disease. Am J Dis Child 97 517-523.
32. J.W. Kendig, R.H. Notter, C. Cox, et al. (1991) A comparison of surfactant as immediate prophylaxis and as rescue therapy in newborns of less than 30 weeks’ gestation. N Engl J Med 324 865-871.
33. D.C. Angus, W.T. Linde-Zwirble, G. Clermont, et al. (2001) Epidemiology of neonatal respiratory failure in the United States: Projections from California and New York. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 164 1154-1160.
34. J.A. Lemons, C.R. Bauer, W. Oh, et al. (2001) Very low birth weight outcomes of the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Neonatal Research Network, January 1995 through December 1996. NICHD Neonatal Research Network. Pediatrics 107 E1.
35. B.J. Stoll, N. Hansen, A.A. Fanaroff, et al. (2002) Late-onset sepsis in very low birth weight neonates: The experience of the NICHD Neonatal Research Network. Pediatrics 110 285-291.
36. P.L. Ballard, Y. Ning, D. Polk, et al. (1997) Glucocorticoid regulation of surfactant components in immature lambs. Am J Physiol 273 L1048-L1057.
37. L.W. Doyle, W.H. Kitchen, G.W. Ford, et al. (1986) Effects of antenatal steroid therapy on mortality and morbidity in very low birth weight infants. J Pediatr 108 287-292.
38. R.A. Pierce, W.I. Mariencheck, S. Sandefur, et al. (1995) Glucocorticoids upregulate tropoelastin expression during late stages of fetal lung development. Am J Physiol 268 L491-L500.
39. L.J. Van Marter, A. Leviton, K.C. Kuban, et al. (1990) Maternal glucocorticoid therapy and reduced risk of bronchopulmonary dysplasia. Pediatrics 86 331-336.
40. G.C. Liggins (1969) Premature delivery of foetal lambs infused with glucocorticoids. J Endocrinol 45 515-523.
41. G.C. Liggins and R.N. Howie (1972) A controlled trial of antepartum glucocorticoid treatment for prevention of the respiratory distress syndrome in premature infants. Pediatrics 50 515-520.
42. Y. Kikkawa, M. Kaibara, E.K. Motoyama, et al. (1971) Morphologic development of fetal rabbit lung and its acceleration with cortisol. Am J Pathol 64 423-442.
43. Effects of corticosteroids for fetal maturation (1995) NIH Consensus Development Panel on the Effect of Corticosteroids for Fetal Maturation on Perinatal Outcomes. JAMA 273 413-418.
44. A.H. Jobe (1993) Pulmonary surfactant therapy. N Engl J Med 328 861-868.
45. G. Enhorning, A. Shennan, F. Possmayer, et al. (1985) Prevention of neonatal respiratory distress syndrome of tracheal instillation of surfactant: A randomized clinical trial. Pediatrics 76 145-153.
46. A.N. Husain, N.H. Siddiqui and J.T. Stocker (1988) Pathology of arrested acinar development in postsurfactant bronchopulmonary dysplasia. Hum Pathol 29 710-717.
47. M.S. Kwong, E.A. Egan, R.H. Notter and D.L. Shapiro (1985) Double-blind clinical trial of calf lung surfactant extract for the prevention of hyaline membrane disease in extremely premature infants. Pediatrics 76 585-592.
48. D.P. Carlton and R.D. Bland (1995) Surfactant and lung fluid balance. B. Robertson, H.W. Taeusch (Eds) Surfactant Therapy for Lung Disease New York: Marcel Dekker 33-46.
49. K.H. Albertine (1998) Histopathology of pulmonary edema and the acute respiratory distress syndrome. M.A. Matthay, D.H. Ingbar (Eds) Lung Biology in Health and Disease New York: Marcel Dekker 37-84.
50. J.S. Wigglesworth (1977) Pathology of neonatal respiratory distress. Proc R Soc Med 70 861-863.
51. J.T. Stocker (2001) The respiratory tract. L.P. Dehner, J.T. Stocker (Eds) Pediatric Pathology ed 2 Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins 445-517.
52. D. Dreyfuss and G. Saumon (1998) Ventilator-induced lung injury: Lessons from experimental studies. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 157 294-323.
53. J.M. Davis, B. Dickerson, L. Metlay and D.P. Penney (1991) Differential effects of oxygen and barotrauma on lung injury in the neonatal piglet. Pediatr Pulmonol 10 157-163.
54. R.A. deLemos, J.J. Coalson, D.R. Gerstmann, et al. (1987) Ventilatory management of infant baboons with hyaline membrane disease: the use of high frequency ventilation. Pediatr Res 21 594-502
55. W.K. Adkins, L.A. Hernandez, P.J. Coker, et al. (1991) Age affects susceptibility to pulmonary barotrauma in rabbits. Crit Care Med 19 390-393.
56. D.P. Carlton, J.J. Cummings, R.G. Scheerer, et al. (1990) Lung overexpansion increases pulmonary microvascular protein permeability in young lambs. J Appl Physiol 69 577-583.
57. D. Dreyfuss, P. Soler, G. Basset and G. Saumon (1988) High inflation pressure pulmonary edema. Respective effects of high airway pressure, high tidal volume, and positive end-expiratory pressure. Am Rev Respir Dis 137 1159-1164.
58. W.A. Hodson (2000) Ventilation strategies and bronchopulmonary dysplasia. R.D. Bland, J.J. Coalson (Eds) Chronic Lung Disease in Early Infancy New York: Marcel Dekker 173-208.
59. J.L. LeFlore, W.A. Salhab, R.S. Broyles and W.D. Engle (2002) Association of antenatal and postnatal dexamethasone exposure with outcomes in extremely low birth weight neonates. Pediatrics 110 275-279.
60. T.A. Merritt, M. Hallman, C. Berry, et al. (1991) Randomized, placebo-controlled trial of human surfactant given at birth versus rescue administration in very low birth weight infants with lung immaturity. J Pediatr 118 581-594.
61. M.E. Avery, W.H. Tooley, J.B. Keller, et al. (1987) Is chronic lung disease in low birth weight infants preventable? A survey of eight centers. Pediatrics 79 26-30.
62. M. Palta, D. Gabbert, M.R. Weinstein and M.E. Peters (1991) Multivariate assessment of traditional risk factors for chronic lung disease in very low birth weight neonates. The Newborn Lung Project. J Pediatr 119 285-292.
63. L.J. Van Marter, M. Pagano, E.N. Allred, et al. (1992) Rate of bronchopulmonary dysplasia as a function of neonatal intensive care practices. J Pediatr 120 938-946.
64. W.H. Northway Jr., R.C. Rosan and D.Y. Porter (1967) Pulmonary disease following respiratory therapy of hyaline membrane disease: Bronchopulmonary dysplasia. N Engl J Med 276 357-368.
65. A.H. Jobe and E. Bancalari (2001) Bronchopulmonary dysplasia. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 163 1723-1729.
66. W.H. Northway Jr. (2001) Bronchopulmonary dysplasia: Thirty-three years later. Pediatr Pulmonol 23 5-7.
67. P.G. Rhodes, R.T. Hall and J.C. Leonides (1975) Chronic pulmonary disease in neonates with assisted ventilation. Pediatrics 55 788-796.
68. P. Campognose and D.B. Singer (1986) Neonatal sepsis due to nontypable haemophilus influenzae. Am J Dis Child 40 117-121.
69. L. Mayes, E. Perkett and M.T. Stahlman (1983) Severe bronchopulmonary dysplasia: A retrospective review. Acta Paediatr Scand 72 225-229.
70. A.P. Bos, S.M. Hussain, F.W. Hazebroek, et al. (1993) Radiographic evidence of bronchopulmonary dysplasia in high-risk congenital diaphragmatic hernia survivors. Pediatr Pulmonol 15 231-234.
71. A.A. Hislop and S.G. Haworth (1990) Pulmonary vascular damage and the development of cor pulmonale following hyaline membrane disease. Pediatr Pulmonol 9 152-161.
72. L.R. Margraf, J.F. Tomashefski, M.C. Bruce and B.B. Dahms (1991) Morphometric analysis of the lung in bronchopulmonary dysplasia. Am Rev Respir Dis 143 391-400.
73. E.A. Boyden (1974) The mode of origin of pulmonary acini and respiratory bronchioles in the fetal lung. Am J Anat 141 317-328.
74. G. Davies and L. Reid (1970) Growth of the alveoli and pulmonary arteries in childhood. Thorax 25 669-681.
75. M.S. Dunnill (1962) Postnatal growth of the lung. Thorax 17 329-333.
76. J.L. Emery and P.F. Wilcock (1966) The postnatal development of the lung. Acta Anat 65 10-29.
77. C. Langston, K. Kida, M. Reed and W.M. Thurlbeck (1984) Human lung growth in late gestation and in the neonate. Am Rev Respir Dis 129 607-613.
78. D.G. Alcorn, T.M. Adamson, J.E. Maloney and P.M. Robinson (1981) A morphologic and morphometric analysis of fetal lung development in the sheep. Anat Rec 201 655-667.
79. P. Davies, L. Reid, G. Lister and B. Pitt (1988) Postnatal growth of the sheep lung: A morphometric study. Anat Rec 220 281-286.
80. S.G. Docimo, R.K. Crone, P. Davies, et al. (1991) Pulmonary development in the fetal lamb: Quantitative histologic study of the alveolar phase. Anat Rec 229 495-498.
81. M.C. Bruce, C.E. Honaker and R.J. Cross (1999) Lung fibroblasts undergo apoptosis following alveolarization. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 20 228-236.
82. K.H. Albertine (1996) Structural organization and quantitative morphology of the lung. A.M. Cutillo (Eds) Application of Magnetic Resonance to the Study of Lung Mount Kisko, NY: Futura Publishing 73-114.
83. P. Lindahl, L. Karlsson, M. Hellstrom, et al. (1997) Alveogenesis failure in PDGF-A-deficient mice is coupled to lack of distal spreading of alveolar smooth muscle cell progenitors during lung development. Development 124 3943-3953.
84. D.P. Wendel, D.G. Taylor, K.H. Albertine, et al. (2000) Impaired distal airway development in mice lacking elastin. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 23 320-326.
85. J.J. Coalson, T.J. Kuehl, M.B. Escobedo, et al. (1982) A baboon model of bronchopulmonary dysplasia. II. Pathologic features. Exp Mol Pathol 37 335-350.
86. J.J. Coalson, T.J. Kuehl, T.J. Prihoda and R.A. deLemos (1988) Diffuse alveolar damage in the evolution of bronchopulmonary dysplasia in the baboon. Pediatr Res 24 357-366.
87. J.J. Coalson, V.T. Winter, D.R. Gerstmann, et al. (1992) Pathophysiologic, morphometric, and biochemical studies of the preterm baboon with bronchopulmonary dysplasia. Am Rev Respir Dis 145 872-881.
88. M.B. Escobedo, J.L. Hilliard, F. Smith, et al. (1982) A baboon model of bronchopulmonary dysplasia. I. Clinical features. Exp Mol Pathol 37 323-334.
89. R.E. Bell, T.J. Kuehl, J.J. Coalson, et al. (1984) High-frequency ventilation compared to conventional positive-pressure ventilation in the treatment of hyaline membrane disease in primates. Crit Care Med 12 764-768.
90. K.S. Meredith, R.A. deLemos, J.J. Coalson, et al. (1989) Role of lung injury in the pathogenesis of hyaline membrane disease in premature baboons. J Appl Physiol 66 2150-2158.
91. B.A. Yoder, T. Siler-Khodr, V.T. Winter and J.J. Coalson (2000) High-frequency oscillatory ventilation: Effects on lung function, mechanics, and airway cytokines in the immature baboon model for neonatal chronic lung disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 162 1867-1876.
92. R.A. deLemos and J.J. Coalson (1992) The contribution of experimental models to our understanding of of the pathogenesis and treatment of bronchopulmonary dysplasia. Clin Perinatol 19 521-539.
93. K.H. Albertine, G.P. Jones, B.C. Starcher, et al. (1999) Chronic lung injury in preterm lambs: Disordered respiratory tract development. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 159 945-958.
94. R.D. Bland, K.H. Albertine, D.P. Carlton, et al. (2000) Chronic lung injury in preterm lambs: Abnormalities of the pulmonary circulation and lung fluid balance. Pediatr Res 48 64-74.
95. A.N. MacRitchie, K.H. Albertine, J. Sun, et al. (2001) Reduced endothelial nitric oxide synthase protein in pulmonary arteries and airways of chronically ventilated preterm lambs. Am J Physiol 281 L1011-L1020.
96. R.A. Pierce, K.H. Albertine, B.C. Starcher, et al. (1997) Chronic lung injury in preterm lambs: Disordered pulmonary elastin deposition. Am J Physiol 272 L452-L460.
97. J. Payne, N. Tabatabaei, N.B. Chandler, et al. (2000) High frequency, low volume mechanical ventilation enhances alveolar formation in chronically ventilated preterm lambs [abstract]. J Invest Med 48 25A.
98. S.L. Olsen, D.W. Thibeault, S.M. Mabry, et al. (2002) Platelet endothelial cell adhesion molecule-1 and capillary loading in premature infants with and without chronic lung disease. Pediatr Pulmonol 33 255-262.
99. R. Pierce, K. Albertine, B. Starcher, et al. (1997) Lung tropoelastin expression increases in lambs after premature birth and 3 days of mechanical ventilation [abstract]. FASEB J 11 A557.
100. J.T. Berg, Z. Fu, E.L. Breen, et al. (1997) High lung inflation increases mRNA levels of ECM components and growth factors in lung parenchyma. J Appl Physiol 83 120-128.
101. J.G. Klekamp, K. Jarzecka, R.L. Hoover, et al. (1997) Vascular endothelial growth factor is expressed in ovine pulmonary vascular smooth muscle cells in vitro and regulated by hypoxia and dexamethasone. Pediatr Res 42 744-749.
102. R.N. Han, J. Liu, A.K. Tanswell and M. Post (1992) Expression of basic fibroblast growth factor and receptor: immunolocalization studies in developing rat fetal lung. Pediatr Res 31 435-440.
103. H. Bostrom, K. Willetts, M. Pekny, et al. (1996) PDGF-A signaling is a critical event in lung alveolar myofibroblast development and alveogenesis. Cell 85 863-873.
104. R.N. Han, C. Mawdsley, P. Souza, et al. (1992) Platelet-derived growth factors and growth-related genes in rat lung. III. Immunolocalization during fetal development. Pediatr Res 31 323-329.
105. W.A. Border and N.A. Noble (1994) Transforming growth factor β in tissue fibrosis. N Engl J Med 331 1286-1292.
106. S. Ruocco, A. Lallemand, J.M. Tournier and D. Gaillard (1996) Expression and localization of epidermal growth factor, transforming growth factor-α, and localization of their common receptor in fetal human lung development. Pediatr Res 39 448-455.
107. B.M. Moats-Staats, W.A. Price, L. Xu, et al. (1995) Regulation of the insulin-like growth factor system during normal rat lung development. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 12 56-64.
108. L.D. Wallen and V.K. Han (1994) Cellular distribution of insulin-like growth factors I and II during development of rat lung. Am J Physiol 267 L531-L542.
109. T.P. Strandjord, J.G. Clark and D.K. Madtes (1994) Expression of TGFα, EGF, and EGF receptor in fetal rat lung. Am J Physiol 267 L384-L389.
110. D. Warburton, R. Seth, L. Shum, et al. (1992) Epignetic role of epidermal growth factor expression and signalling in embryonic mouse lung morphogenesis. Dev Biol 149 123-133.
111. K.H. Albertine, J. Sun, M.J. Dahl, et al. (2002) Retinol treatment of fetal lambs with continuous drainage of lung luminal and amniotic liquids is associated with enhanced development of distal lung parenchyma [abstract]. Pediatr Res 51 60A.
112. K.H. Albertine, J. Sun, M.J. Dahl, et al. (2002) Retinol treatment from birth increases expression of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and its receptor, fetal liver kinase-1 (FLK-1), and is associated with greater lung capillary surface density in chronically ventilated preterm lambs [abstract]. Pediatr Res 51 60A.
113. M. Jakkula, T.D. Le Cras, S. Gebb, et al. (2000) Inhibition of angiogenesis decreases alveolarization in the developing rat lung. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol 279 L600-L607.
114. T.D. Le Cras, N.E. Markham, R.M. Tuder, et al. (2002) Treatment of newborn rats with a VEGF receptor inhibitor causes pulmonary hypertension and abnormal lung structure. Am J Physiol 283 L555-L562.
115. W.M. Maniscalco, R.H. Watkins, G.S. Pryhuber, et al. (2002) Angiogenic factors and alveolar vasculature: Development and alterations by injury in very premature baboons. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol 282 L811-L823.
116. S.K. Schachtner, Y. Wang and H.S. Baldwin (2000) Qualitative and quantitative analysis of embryonic pulmonary vessel formation. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 22 157-165.
117. D.B. Taichman, K.M. Lommes, S.K. Schachtner, et al. (2002) Notch1 and Jagged1 expression by the developing pulmonary vasculature. Dev Dynamics 225 166-175.
118. K. Peters, S. Werner, X. Liao, et al. (1994) Targeted expression of a dominant negative FGF receptor blocks branching morphogenesis and epithelial differentiation of the mouse lung. EMBO J 13 3296-3301.
119. S. Yu, B. Poe, M. Schwarz, et al. (2010) Fetal and postnatal lung defects reveal a novel and required role for Fgfs in lung development. Dev Biol 347 92-108.
120. L. Pertovaara, A. Kaipainen, T. Mustonen, et al. (1994) Vascular endothelial growth factor is induced in response to transforming growth factor-beta in fibroblastic and epithelial cells. J Biol Chem 269 6271-6274.
121. G. Finkenzeller, D. Marme, H.A. Weich and H. Hug (1992) Platelet-derived growth factor-induced transcription of the vascular endothelial growth factor gene is mediated by protein kinase C. Canc Res 52 4821-4823.
122. R.M. Tuder, B.E. Flook and N.F. Voelkel (1995) Increased gene expression for VEGF and the VEGF receptors KDR/Flk and Flt in lungs exposed to acute or to chronic hypoxia. Modulation of gene expression by nitric oxide. J Clin Invest 95 1798-1807.
123. H.S. Baldwin and J.C. Grindley (2004) Molecular determinants of embryonic vascular development. R.A. Polin (Eds) Fetal and Neonatal Physiology 3rd ed New York: Saunders 621-634.
124. W.M. Maniscalco, R.H. Watkins, J.N. Finkelstein and M.H. Campbell (1997) Hyperoxic injury decreases alveolar epithelial cell expression of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) in neonatal rabbit lung. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 16 557-567.
125. J.G. Klekamp, K. Jarzecka and E.A. Perkett (1999) Exposure to hyperoxia decreases the expression of vascular endothelial growth factor and its receptors in adult rat lungs. Am J Pathol 154 823-831.
126. W.M. Maniscalco, R. Watkins, J.N. Finkelstein and M.H. Campbell (1995) Vascular endothelial growth factor mRNA increases in alveolar epithelial cells during recovery from oxygen injury. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 13 377-386.
127. R.B. Brandt, D.G. Mueller, J.R. Schroeder, et al. (1978) Serum vitamin A in premature and term neonates. J Pediatr 92 101-104.
128. V.A. Hustead, G.R. Gutcher, S.A. Anderson and R.D. Zachman (1984) Relationship of vitamin A (retinol) status to lung disease in the preterm infant. J Pediatr 105 610-615.
129. J.P. Shenai and F. Chytil (1990) Vitamin A storage in lungs during perinatal development in the rat. Biol Neonate 57 126-132.
130. J.P. Shenai, F. Chytil and M.T. Stahlman (1985) Vitamin A status of neonates with bronchopulmonary dysplasia. Pediatr Res 19 185-188.
131. J.P. Shenai, K.A. Kennedy, F. Chytil and M.T. Stahlman (1987) Clinical trial of vitamin A supplementation in infants susceptible to bronchopulmonary dysplasia. J Pediatr 111 269-277.
132. E. Pearson, C. Bose, T. Snidow, et al. (1992) Trial of vitamin A supplementation in very low birth weight infants at risk for bronchopulmonary dysplasia. J Pediatr 121 420-427.
133. J.E. Tyson, R.A. Ehrenkranz, B.J. Stoll, et al. (1998) Vitamin (vit.) A supplementation to increase survival without chronic lung disease (CLD) in extremely low birth weight (ELBW) infants: A 14-center randomized trial [abstract]. Pediatr Res 43 199A.
134. J.E. Tyson, L.L. Wright, W. Oh, et al. (1999) Vitamin A supplementation for extremely-low-birth-weight infant. N Engl J Med 340 1962-1968.
135. S. McGowan, S.K. Jackson, M. Jenkins-Moore, et al. (2000) Mice bearing deletions of retinoic acid receptors demonstrate reduced lung elastin and alveolar numbers. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 23 162-167.
136. G.D. Massaro and D. Massaro (1996) Formation of pulmonary alveoli and gas-exchange surface area: Quantitation and regulation. Annu Rev Physiol 58 73-92.
137. E. Oshika, S. Liu, G. Singh, et al. (1998) Antagonistic effects of dexamethasone and retinoic acid on rat lung morphogenesis. Pediatr Res 43 315-324.
138. G.D. Massaro and D. Massaro (1997) Retinoic acid treatment abrogates elastase-induced pulmonary emphysema in rats. Nat Med 3 675-677.
139. K.H. Albertine, M.J. Dahl, L. Gonzales, et al. (2010) Chronic lung disease in preterm labor. Effect of daily vitamin A treatment on alveolarization. Am J Physiol 299 L59-L72.
140. B.A. Darlow and P.J. Graham (2002) Vitamin A supplementation for preventing morbidity and mortality in very low birthweight infants. Cochrane Database Syst Rev (4), CD000501
141. L.J. Van Marter, E.N. Allred, M. Pagano, et al. (2000) Do clinical markers of barotrauma and oxygen toxicity explain interhospital variation in rates of chronic lung disease? The Neonatology Committee for the Developmental Network. Pediatrics 105 1194-1201.
142. A.H. Jobe, B.W. Kramer, T.J. Moss, et al. (2002) Decreased indicators of lung injury with continuous positive expiratory pressure in preterm lambs. Pediatr Res 52 387-392.
143. M.A. Thomson, B.A. Yoder, V.T. Winter, et al. (2004) Treatment of immature baboons for 28 days with early nasal continuous positive airway pressure. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 169 1054-1062.
144. K.H. Albertine, M.J. Dahl, A. Shumway, et al. (2006) Gas exchange and alveolar septation are improved in preterm lambs managed by nasal CPAP for 21 days [abstract]. E-PAS 59 4843-4175
145. B. Wilkinson, D. Metcalfe, C. Callaway, et al. (2007) Nasal continuous positive airway pressure (nasal CPAP) during prolonged ventilation affects pulmonary expression of STAT3 and its downstream target SOCS3 in the premature lung [abstract]. J Invest Med 55 S76.