Strategies to reduce dietary sodium intake

Current Treatment Options in Cardiovascular Medicine

Volumn 14, Issue 4, 2012, Pages 425-434

  Cobb, Laura K ^a   Appel, Lawrence J ^a   Anderson, Cheryl A M ^a  

^a JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Blood pressure; Cardiovascular disease; Hypertension; Policy; Salt; Sodium

Indexed keywords

CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE; CLINICAL DECISION MAKING; FAST FOOD; FOOD AND DRUG ADMINISTRATION; FOOD CONTROL; FOOD INDUSTRY; FOOD PACKAGING; FOOD SAFETY; GOVERNMENT REGULATION; HEALTH CARE COST; HEALTH CARE PERSONNEL; HEALTH EDUCATION; HUMAN; HYPERTENSION; INFORMATION DISSEMINATION; NUTRITIONAL COUNSELING; PATHOGENESIS; PRIVATE PRACTICE; PUBLIC HEALTH; PUBLIC HEALTH SERVICE; REVIEW; SODIUM INTAKE; SODIUM RESTRICTION; UNITED STATES;

EID: 84865693563     PISSN: 10928464     EISSN: 15343189     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s11936-012-0182-9     Document Type: Review

References (58)

1. Institute ofMedicine. Strategies to Reduce Sodium Intake in the United States. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press; 2010. This report recommends key strategies to reduce population sodium intake in the US. The primary recommendation is that the US Food and Drug Administration regulate levels of sodium chloride (salt) in food by altering the GRAS (Generally Recognized as Safe) status of sodium. In addition, the report contains a comprehensive overview of the issues related to sodium reduction, including scientific evidence for sodium reduction, current sodium intake levels in theUS, the role of salt and sodium in taste preferences and food science, and theUS regulatory environment.
2. Bertino M, Beauchamp GK, Engelman K. Long-term reduction in dietary sodium alters the taste of salt. Am J Clin Nutr. 1982;36:1134-44. (Pubitemid 13177124)
3. Mattes RD, Donnelly D. Relative contributions of dietary sodium sources. J Am Coll Nutr. 1991;10:383-93.
4. United States Department of Agriculture, Center for Nutrition Policy and Promotion. United States Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 2010. Available at www. dietaryguidelines.govAccessed on September 20, 2011.
5. Lloyd-Jones D, Hong Y, Labarthe D, et al. Defining and setting national goals for cardiovacular health promotion and disease reduction. The American Heart Association's strategic impact goal through 2020 and beyond. Circulation. 2010;121:586-613.
6. Bernstein AM, Willett WC. Trends in 24-h urinary sodium excretion in the United States, 1957-2003: A systematic review. Am J Clin Nutr. 2010;92:1172-80.
7. New York City Department of Health and Mental Hygiene. Health Department announces new company commitments to National Salt Reduction Initiative; Sodium study confirms that New Yorkers eat toomuch salt. Available at http://www.nyc.gov/html/doh/html/ pr2011/pr005-11.shtml. Accessed December 22, 2011.
8. Lawes CM, Vander Hoorn S, Rodgers A, et al. Global burden of blood-pressure-related disease, 2001. Lancet. 2008;371:1513-8. (Pubitemid 351626187)
9. Chobanian AV, Bakris GL, Black HR, et al. Seventh report of the joint national committee on prevention, detection, evaluation, and treatment of high blood pressure. Hypertension. 2003;42:1206-52. (Pubitemid 37553153)
10. Lewington S, Clarke R, Qizilbash N, et al. Age-specific relevance of usual blood pressure to vascular mortality: A meta-analysis of individual data for one million adults in 61 prospective studies. Lancet. 2002;360:1903-13. (Pubitemid 35472129)
11. Appel LJ, Brands MW, Daniels SR, et al. Dietary approaches to prevent and treat hypertension: A scientific statement from the American Heart Association. Hypertension. 2006;47:296-308. (Pubitemid 43189776)
12. He FJ, Macgregor GA. A comprehensive review on salt and health and current experience of worldwide salt reduction programmes. J Hum Hypertens. 2008;23:363-84.
13. Sacks FM, Campos H. Dietary therapy in hypertension. N Engl J Med. 2010;362:2102-12. This article uses a case study of a patient with hypertension to address best practices for management of hypertension through diet. The authors provide specific dietary recommendations for patients, including sodium reduction, adoption of the DASH diet, and weight loss. The scientific evidence upon which dietary recommendations are based and guidance on how to counsel patients to adopt a healthier life style are also included.
14. Institute of Medicine. Dietary reference intakes: Water, potassium, sodium chloride, and sulfate. 1st ed. Washington, DC: National Academy Press; 2004.
15. Bibbins-Domingo K, Chertow GM, Coxson PG, et al. Projected effect of dietary salt reductions on future cardiovascular disease. N Engl JMed. 2010;362:590-9. Through rigorous modeling, this study estimates the impact of population salt reduction on cardiovascular disease, mortality, and health care costs. It is projected that reducing population salt intake by 3 g per day will prevent, annually, between 44,000 and 92,000 deaths; 60,000 to 120,000 new coronary heart disease cases; and 32,000 to 66,000 strokes.
16. Cook NR, Cutler JA, Obarzanek E, et al. Long term effects of dietary sodium reduction on cardiovascular disease outcomes: Observational follow-up of the trials of hypertension prevention (TOHP). BMJ. 2007;334:885.
17. Appel LJ, Frohlich ED, Hall JE, et al. The importance of population-wide sodium reduction as a means to prevent cardiovascular disease and stroke: A call to action from the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2011;123:1138-43. In this American Heart Association report, the argument is made for action to reduce population sodium intake in the US. It includes a review of the scientific evidence linking sodium intake to increased blood pressure as well as the potential benefits of addressing this public health problem.
18. Frohlich ED, Varagic J. The role of sodium in hypertension is more complex than simply elevating arterial pressure. Nat Clin Pract Cardiovasc Med. 2004;1:24-30. (Pubitemid 40823718)
19. He FJ, Marciniak M, Visagie E, et al. Effect of modest salt reduction on blood pressure, urinary albumin, and pulse wave velocity in white, black, and Asian mild hypertensives. Hypertension. 2009;54:482-8.
20. Lin PH, Ginty F, Appel LJ, et al. The DASH diet and sodium reduction improve markers of bone turnover and calcium metabolism in adults. J Nutr. 2003;133:3130-6. (Pubitemid 37222227)
21. Appel LJ. The case for population-wide salt reduction gets stronger. BMJ. 2009;339:b4980.
22. Stolarz-Skrzypek K, Kuznetsova T, Thijs L, et al. Fatal and nonfatal outcomes, incidence of hypertension, and blood pressure changes in relation to urinary sodium excretion. JAMA. 2011;305:1777-85.
23. O'Donnell MJ, Yusuf S, Mente A, et al. Urinary sodium and potassium excretion and risk of cardiovascular events. JAMA. 2011;306:2229-38.
24. Whelton PK. Urinary sodium and cardiovascular disease risk: Informing guidelines for sodium consumption. JAMA. 2011;306:2262-4.
25. Webster JL, Dunford EK, Hawkes C, et al. Salt reduction initiatives around the world. J Hypertens. 2011;29:1043-50.
26. UK Food Standards Agency. UK salt reduction initiatives. Available at http://www.food.gov.uk/multimedia/ pdfs/saltreductioninitiatives.pdf. Accessed December 21, 2011.
27. New York City Department of Health and Mental Hygiene. Cutting salt, improving health: NYC salt media campaign 2010. Available at http://www.nyc.gov/ html/doh/html/cardio/cardio-salt-ads.shtml. Accessed December 21, 2011.
28. Lazar K. Mass. ad campaign aims to drive down salt consumption. The Boston Globe. September 30, 2011, 2011. Available at http://www.nyc.gov/html/ doh/html/cardio/cardio-salt-ads.shtml. Accessed December 21, 2011.
29. New York City Department of Health and Mental Hygiene. National Salt Reduction Initiative -Statement of commitment by health organizations and public agencies. Available at http://www.nyc.gov/ html/doh/html/cardio/cardio-salt- coalition.shtml. Accessed December 22, 2011.
30. Effects of weight loss and sodium reduction intervention on blood pressure and hypertension incidence in overweight people with high-normal blood pressure. The Trials of Hypertension Prevention, phase II. The Trials of Hypertension Prevention Collaborative Research Group. Arch Intern Med. 1997;157:657-667.
31. Whelton PK, Appel LJ, Espeland MA, et al. Sodium reduction and weight loss in the treatment of hypertension in older persons: A randomized controlled trial of nonpharmacologic interventions in the elderly (TONE). TONE Collaborative Research Group. JAMA. 1998;279:839-46. (Pubitemid 28185548)
32. Appel LJ, Champagne CM, Harsha DW, et al. Effects of comprehensive lifestyle modification on blood pressure control: Main results of the PREMIER clinical trial. JAMA. 2003;289:2083-93. (Pubitemid 37430210)
33. Cabezas C, Advani M, Puente D, et al. Effectiveness of a stepped primary care smoking cessation intervention: Cluster randomized clinical trial (ISTAPS study). Addiction. 2011;106:1696-706.
34. Appel LJ, Clark JM, Yeh HC, et al. Comparative effectiveness of weight-loss interventions in clinical practice. N Engl J Med. 2011;365:1959-68.
35. Graves G. White noise.l Vogue. New York: Conde Nast; 2010.
36. Appel LJ, Miller ER. Promoting lifestyle modification in the office setting. In: Egan BM, Basile JN, Lackland DT, editors. Hypertension: Hot topics. Philadelphia: Hanley & Belfus, Inc.; 2004. p. 155-63.
37. Rothman RL, Housam R, Weiss H, et al. Patient understanding of food labels: The role of literacy and numeracy. Am J Prev Med. 2006;31:391-8. (Pubitemid 44528949)
38. Todd, Jessica E. Variyam, Jayachandran N. The decline in consumer use of food nutrition labels, 1995-2006. Economic Research Report. Economic Research Service, U.S. Dept of Agriculture; 2008;63. Available at http://www.ers.usda. gov/Publications/ ERR63/ERR63.pdf. Accessed October 30, 2011.
39. Variyam JN. Do nutrition labels improve dietary outcomes? Health Econ. 2008;17:695-708. (Pubitemid 351983394)
40. Pietinen P, Valsta LM, Hirvonen T, et al. Labelling the salt content in foods: A useful tool in reducing sodium intake in Finland. Public Health Nutr. 2008;11:335-40. (Pubitemid 351365308)
41. UK Food Standards Agency. Front of pack traffic light signpost labeling: Technical guidance. November 2007;Issue 2. Available at http://www.food.gov.uk/ multimedia/pdfs/frontofpackguidance2.pdf. Accessed December 21, 2011.
42. Sacks G, Rayner M, Swinburn B. Impact of front-of-pack 'traffic-light' nutrition labelling on consumer food purchases in the UK. Health Promot Int. 2009;24:344-52.
43. Institute of Medicine. Examination of front-ofpackage nutrition rating systems and symbols: Promoting healthier choices. Washington, D.C.: National Academies Press; 2011.
44. Neuman W. Food makers devise own label plan. The New York Times. January 24, 2011. Available at http://www.nytimes.com/2011/01/25/business/25label.html?- r=2. Accessed December 23, 2011.
45. Center for Science in the Public Interest. Salt assault: Brand name comparisons of processed foods, 2nd Edition. Washington, DC: Center for Science in the Public Interest; 2008. Available at http://www.cspinet. org/new/pdf/salt-report-update.pdf. Accessed December 21, 2011.
46. New York City Department of Health and Mental Hygiene. Cutting salt, improving health. Available at http://www.nyc.gov/html/doh/html/cardio/ cardiosalt-initiative.shtml. Accessed December 22, 2011.
47. Bertino M, Beauchamp GK, Engelman K. Increasing dietary salt alters salt taste preference. Physiol Behav. ;38:203-13.
48. Beauchamp GK, Bertino M, Engelman K. Failure to compensate decreased dietary sodium with increased table salt usage. JAMA. 1987;258:3275-8. (Pubitemid 17160146)
49. UK Department of Health. Public Health Responsibility Deal: Pledges. Available at http://www.dh.gov.uk/ en/Publichealth/ Publichealthresponsibilitydeal/ Pledges/index.htm. Accessed December 23, 2011.
50. New York City Department of Health and Mental Hygiene. Cut the salt. Get the facts. The National Salt Reduction Initiative. Available at http://www.nyc. gov/html/doh/downloads/pdf/cardio/cardio-saltnsri-faq.pdf. Accessed December 22, 2011.
51. Strom S.Nonprofit advocate carves out a for-profit niche. The New York Times. June 17, 2010. Available at http:// www.nytimes.com/2010/06/18/us/ politics/18berman. html?pagewanted=all. Accessed February 8, 2012.
52. The Center for Consumer Freedom. NY health chief summer-salts into the bland. Available at http:// www.consumerfreedom.com/2009/01/3816-nyhealth-chief- summer-salts-into-the-bland/. Accessed December 23, 2011.
53. Salt Institute. New York City risks its greatest culinary achievement. Available at http://www.saltinstitute. org/News-events-media/Salt-Sensibility/ Food/New-York-City-risks-its-greatest-culinary-achievement. Accessed December 23, 2011.
54. New York City Department of Health and Mental Hygiene. NewYorkCity Food Standards. Available at http:// www.nyc.gov/html/doh/html/cardio/cardio- vendnutrition-standard.shtml. Accessed December 23, 2011.
55. New York City food standards. Part I: Standards for meals/snacks purchased and served, revised October 2011. Available at http://www.nyc.gov/ html/dycd/ downloads/pdf/City-Agency-Food-Standards.pdf. Accessed December 23, 2011.
56. Nutrition and Physical Activity Obesity Initiative, Bureau of Community Heath Access and Promotion, MA Department of Public Health. Massachusetts State Agency food standards: Requirements and recommendations. Available at http://www.mass.gov/ eohhs/docs/dph/com-health/nutrition-phys-activity/ eo509-state-agency-food-standards.pdf. Accessed December 23, 2011.
57. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Improving the food environment through nutrition standards: A guide for government procurement. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control, National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, Division for Heart Disease and Stroke Prevention,; February 2011. Available at http://www.cdc.gov/salt/pdfs/dhdsp-procurement-guide.pdf. Accessed December 23 2011.
58. Department of Health and Human Services, Food and Drug Administration, Department of Agriculture, Food Safety and Inspection Service. Approaches to reducing sodium consumption; establishment of dockets; request for comments, data, and information. Federal Register. Washington, D.C.: United States Government Printing Office; September 15, 2011;76(179):57050-57054.