Gender parity and state legitimacy: From public offi ce to corporate boards

International Journal of Constitutional Law

Volumn 10, Issue 2, 2012, Pages 449-464

  Suk, Julie C ^a  

^a Crowley Program in International Human Rights   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84865365294     PISSN: 14742640     EISSN: 14742659     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/icon/mos012     Document Type: Article

References (69)

1. Although Regents of University of California v. Bakke upheld the constitutionality of affi rmative action programs narrowly tailored to promote diversity, it struck down the particular program challenged in that litigation because it operated as a racial quota. See 438 U.S. 265, 318-20. In Grutter v. Bollingerthe Court reaffirmed the understanding that racial quotas would be unconstitutional. See Grutter v. Bollinger, 539 U.S. 306-309 (2003).
2. In the United States, the word "quota" is often deployed to oppose civil rights legislation. For instance, President George H.W. Bush vetoed the Civil Rights Act of 1990 on the grounds that it would impose quotas on employers. See 136 Cong. Rec. 31,827, 31,828 (1990). Congressional opponents of the 1991 Civil Rights Act, which eventually passed, also fought about whether the bill was a "quota bill." See H.R. Rep. No. 102-40
3. In addition, when voting rights scholar Lani Guinier was nominated to head the Civil Rights Division of the U.S. Justice Department in 1995, an op-ed in the Wall Street Journal described her as a "quota queen," and President Clinton withdrew her nomination. See Anthony Lewis, The Case of Lani GuinierN.Y. R EVIEW OF B OOKSAug. 13, 1998.
4. Amendment to the Public Limited Companies Act, Ot.prp. No. 97 (20022003
5. See Public Limited Companies Act, § 16-15(1)(2); §16-16 (Nor.)
6. Ley Orgánica 3/2007, de 22 de marzo, ara la Igualdad Efectiva de Mujeres y Hombres (Organic Law 3/, of Mar. 22, 2007, on the Effective Equality between Women and Men) (Sp.).2007
7. See Loi 2011-103 du 27 janvier 2011 relative à la représentation équilibrée des femmes et des hommes au sein des conseils d ' administration et de surveillance et à l ' égalité professionnelle (1), Journal Officiel de la République Française [Official Gazette of France] [J.O.], January 27, 2011, at 1680 (Fr.); Legge 12 Luglio 2011, n. 120 Modifiche al testo unico delle disposizioni in material di intermediazione finanziaria, di cui al decreto legislative 24 febbraio 1998, no. 58, concernenti la parità di acceso agli organi di amministrazione e di controllo delle società quotate in mercati regolamentati, Gazzetta Ufficiale [Official Gazette of Italy] N. 174 del 28 Luglio 2011 (It.); Proposition de loi visant à promouvoir une representation équilibrée des femmes et des hommes dans les conseils d ' administration d ' entreprises publiques économiques et de societies qui on fati publiquement appel à l ' épargne, Sénat de Belgique, Document legislative no. 5-186-2 (1 février 2011) (Be.) (adopted June 30, 2011
8. Susanne Bayer and Claudia Voigt, Why Germany Needs a Gender QuotaD ER S PIEGELFeb. 4, 2011, at http://wwwspiegelde/international/germany/0151874328100html
9. European Parliament, Report on Women and Business Leadership, A7-0210/, at 16.2011
10. Loi 2011-103 du 27 janvier 2011 relative à la représentation équilibrée des femmes et des hommes au sein des conseils d ' administration et de surveillance et à l ' égalité professionnelle (1), Journal Officiel de la République Française [Official Gazette of France] [J.O.], January 27,at 1680 (Fr.).2011
11. Loi 2006-340 du 23 mars 2006 relative à l ' égalité salariale entre les femmes et les hommes, J.O., Mar. 24,at 4440 (Fr.).2006
12. Conseil constitutionnel [CC],decision no. 2006-533 DC, Mar. 16, Loi relative à l'égalité salariale entre les femmes et les hommes, J.O., Mar. 24, 2006, at 4446 (Fr.).2006
13. Loi constitutionnelle -724 du 23 juillet 2008 de modernisation des institutions de la Ve République, art. 1, J.O., July 24, 2008, at 11890 (Fr.).2008
14. David B. Wilkins, From "Separate Is Inherently Unequal" to "Diversity is Good for Business": The Rise of Market-Based Diversity Arguments and the Fate of the Black Corporate Bar117, H ARVL. R EV1548 (2004
15. Lisa M. Fairfax, The Bottom Line on Board Diversity: A Cost-Benefi t Analysis of the Business Rationales for Diversity on Corporate Boards2005 W ISL. R EV. 795 (2005
16. Lissa Lamkin Broome and Kimberly Krawiec, Signaling Through Board Diversity: Is Anyone Listening? 77 U. C INL. R EV431 (2008
17. Sung Hui Kim, The Diversity Double Standard89 N.C. L. R EV945 (2011
18. Jayne M. Barnard, More Women on Corporate Boards? Not So Fast13 W Mand M ARY J. W OMEN and L. 703 (2007
19. Lynne L. Dallas, The New Managerialism and Diversity on Corporate Boards of Directors ,76 T ULL. R EV1363 (2002
20. Donald J. Polden, Forty Years After Title VII: Creating an Atmosphere Conducive to Diversity in the Corporate Boardroom36 U. M EML. R EV67 (2005
21. Steven A. Ramirez, Games CEOs Play and Interest Convergence Theory: Why Diversity Lags in America's Boardrooms and What to Do About It61 W ASHand L EE L. R EV1583 (2004).
22. Arni Hole, Government Action to Bring About Gender Balance, A Personal Account of the Quota Legislation in Norwayavailable at hFor an extended discussion of the Norwegian gender quotas law, see Darren Rosenblum, Feminizing Capital: A Corporate Imperative6 B ERKELEY B USL. J. 55 (2009).http://www20 - fi rstcom/406-0 - a - personal - account - of - the - quota - legislation - in - norwayhtml
23. Kate Sweetman, How Women Have Changed Norway ' s BoardroomsH ARVB USR EV ., July 27, 2009.
24. Where would we be if women ran Wall Street?N.Y. T IMESFeb. 1, 2010.
25. See BE ATE EL STAD and GR O LA DEG Ä RDWO MEN AND IN FLUENCE IN CO RPORATE BO ARDS TH E CA SE OF NO RWAY; TH E CO NFERENCE B OARD OF C ANADAW OMEN ON B OARDSN OT J UST THE R IGHT T HING.B UT THE "B RIGHT "THING (2002).
26. David Carter et al., Corporate Governance, Board Diversity, and Firm Value38 F INR EV33 (2003); Niclas L. Erhardt et al., Board of Director Diversity and Firm Financial Performance11 C ORPG OVERNANCE 102 (2003).
27. Nicola Clarke, Getting Women into Boardrooms, by LawN.Y. T IMESJan. 27, 2010.
28. Val Singh et al., Women Directors on Top UK Boards9 CO RPG OVERNANCE 206 (2002
29. Renée B. Adams and Daniel Ferreira, Women in the Boardroom and Their Impact on Governance and Performance (Oct. 22, 2008) http://ssrncom/abstract = 1107721
30. Kenneth R. Ahern and Amy K. Dittmar, The Changing of the Boards: The Value Effect of a Massive Exogenous Shock 1-2May 19, available at http://papersssrncom/sol3/paperscfm ? abstract_id = 13644702010
31. David A. Matsa and Amalia R. Miller, A Female Style in Corporate Leadership? Evidence from Quotas
32. 2-3, June 22,available at http://papersssrncom/sol3/paperscfm ? abstract_id = 16360472011
33. Carrie Lukas, Surprise: Forcing Corporate Boards to Have More Women Isn ' t Good for Business or Most WomenN AT ' L R EVO NLINEFeb. 2, 2010Z
34. Ministry of Children, Equality, and Social Inclusion, Representation of both sexes on company boardsavailable at http://wwwregjeringen
35. See European Parliament Directorate-General for Internal Policies, Policy Department C, Electoral Gender Quota Systems and Their Implementation in Europe 11 (2008), available at http://wwweuroparleuropaeu/document/activities/cont/200903/20090310ATT51390/20090310ATT51390ENpdf2008
36. Loi 2000-493 du 6 juin 2000 tendant à favoriser l ' égal accès des femmes et des hommes aux mandats électoraux et fonctions électives, J.O., June 7,at 8560.2000
37. Loi constitutionnelle 99-569 du 8 juillet 1999 relative à l ' égalité entre les hommes et les femmes, art. 1, J.O., at 10175.
38. CC, decision 82-146, Nov. 18, 1982, Loi modifi ant le code électoral et le code des communes et relative à l'élection des conseillers municipaux et aux conditions d'inscription des français établi hors de France sur les listes électorales, J.O. Nov. 19, 1982, at 3475.
39. Loi constitutionnelle 99-569 du 8 juillet 1999 relative à l ' égalité entre les hommes et les femmes, art. 1.J.O., July 9, 1999, at 10175.
40. See Catherine Tasca, Assemblée Nationale, Rapport fait au nom de la commission des lois constitutionnelles, de la législation et de l ' administration générale de la république sur le projet de loi constitutionnelle relative à l ' égalité entre les femmes et les hommes, No. 1377, Feb. 10,at 11-12, available at http://wwwassemblee - nationalefr/11/rapports/r1377asp; G ENEVI e VE F RAISSEM USE DE LA LIBERT É: LA D É MOCRATIE EXCLUSIVE ET LA DIFF É RENCE DES SEXES (1994); S YLVIANE A GACINSKIP OLITIQUE DES SEXES: MIXIT É ET PARIT É (1999). Lionel Jospin, the prime minister, opened one of the debates on the constitutional amendment by pointing out that women constituted half of the electorate, and that their underrepresentation in all levels of government undermined French democracy. See Compte rendu analytique offi ciel, 2ème séance du lundi, 28 juin 1999, projet de loi constitutionnelle relative à l ' égalité entre les femmes et les hommes, available at wwwasemblee - nationalefr/11/cra/1998-1999/99062815asp1999
41. J OAN S COTTP ARIT É! S EXUAL E QUALITY AND THE C RISIS OF F RENCH U NIVERSALISMat 100-123 (2005).
42. Blanca Ruiz Rodriguez and Ruth Rubio Marín, The Gender of Representation: On Democracy, Equality, and Parity6 I NT ' L J. C ONST. L. 287-289 (2008).
43. C AROLE P ATEMANT HE S EXUAL C ONTRACT (1988). Susan Okin also argues, in a reading of Rousseau ' s political philosophy, that Rousseau ' s conception of the social contract (which strongly infl uence French understandings of republicanism) also depended upon the unequal division of power within the family. On Okin ' s reading of Rousseau, women could participate in Rousseau ' s ideal republic "only through their domestic infl uence on their husbands." See S USAN M OLLER O KINW OMEN IN W ESTERN P OLITICAL T HOUGHT 145 (1979).
44. Hegel was one of the few Western political theorists who saw civil society and the modern state as depending on the gendered division of labor in the family. See G.W.F. H EGELE LEMENTS OF THE P HILOSOPHYOF R IGHT§§ 158-181 (Allen W Wood ed., H.B. Nisbet trans., CUP, 1991
45. M ICHAEL O. H ARDIMONH EGEL ' S S OCIAL P HILOSOPHY T HE P ROJECT OF R ECONCILIATION 183-189 (1994).
46. Blanca Ruiz Rodriguez and Ruth Rubio Marín, Constitutional Justifi cation of Parity Democracy60 A LAL. R EV1171, 1181-1182 (2009).
47. Sénat, Rapport fait au nom de la commission des lois constitutionnelles, de législation, du suffrage universel, du Règlement d ' administration générale (1) sur le projet de loi constitutionnelle, adopté par l ' Assemblée Nationale, de modernisation des institutions de la Ve République, No. 387, June 11, 2008, 55, available at http://wwwsenatfr/rap/l07-387/l07-387html
48. Some politicians expressed concern that the gender equality provision did not belong in Article 1, because Article 1 is a description of the nature of the republic itself. See Sénat, Séance du 18 juin 2008(compte rendu intégral des débats), available at http://wwwsenatfr/seances/s200806/s20080618/s20080618007html
49. Remarks of Jérome Chartier Assemblée Nationale, Séance du 27 mai 2008 (compte rendu analytique offi ciel), available at http://wwwassemblee - nationalefr/13/cra/2007-2008/170asp.
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53. Ministry of Children, Equality, and Social Inclusion, Representation of both sexes on company boards, available at noIn answering frequently asked questions about the law, the website focuses on economic bottom-line arguments to explain why balanced participation is a "question of democracy."http://wwwregjeringen
54. Stein Rokkan, Norway: Numerical Democracy and Corporate Pluralismin P OLITICAL O PPOSITIONS IN W ESTERN D EMOCRACIES 70, 110 (Robert A. Dahl ed., 1966).
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64. Marie-Hélène Desesgaulx, Sénat, Rapport No. 38, Oct. 13, 2010, available at wwwsenatfr/rap/10-038pdf
65. In the United States, corporatism was embraced by FDR during the New Deal, but declined in favor of a liberal pluralist competitive approach, particularly with regard to economic regulation. See Michael L. Wachter, Labor Unions: A Corporatist Institution in a Competitive World155 U. P AL. R EV. 581, 588-601 (2007). For an account of corporatism in U.S. corporate law in the 1920s and 1930s, see William W. Bratton and Michael L. Wachter, Shareholder Primacy's Corporatist Origins: Adolf Berle and the Modern Corporation, 34 J. C ORPL. 99, 105 (2008).
66. HO WARD WI ARDAC ORPORATISM AND C OMPARATIVE PO LITICS 5 (1997).
67. The classic statement of the pluralist model is found i n R OBERT DA HLWH O GO VERNS? (1961).
68. See Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission, 130 S.Ct. 876, 907 (2010).
69. Reva Siegel, From Colorblindness to Antibalkanization: An Emerging Ground of Decision in Race Equality Cases120 Y ALE L. J. 1278, 1300-1303 (2011).