Disentangling vitality, well-being, and quality of life: A conceptual examination emphasizing their similarities and differences with special application in the physical activity domain

Journal of Physical Activity and Health

Volumn 9, Issue 6, 2012, Pages 896-908

  Guérin, Eva ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF OTTAWA   (Canada)

Author keywords

Exercise; Mental health; Psychology; Review; Wellness

Indexed keywords

EID: 84865045166     PISSN: 15433080     EISSN: 15435476     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1123/jpah.9.6.896     Document Type: Article

References (120)

1. Penedo FJ, Dahn Jr. Exercise and well-being: a review of mental and physical health benefits associated with physical activity. Curr Opin Psychiatry. 2005;18(2):189-193. PubMed doi:10.1097/00001504-200503000-00013 (Pubitemid 40824452)
2. Warburton DER, Nicol CW, Bredin SSD. Health benefits of physical activity: the evidence. Can Med Assoc J. 2006;174(6):801-810. PubMed doi:10.1503/cmaj.051351
3. Biddle SJH, Mutrie N. Psychology of physical activity and exercise: determinants, well-being and interventions. 2nd ed. New York, NY: Routledge; 2008.
4. WHOQOL Group. The World Health Organization Quality of Life assessment (WHOQOL): position paper from the World Health Organization. Soc Sci Med. 1995;41(10):1403-1409. PubMed doi:10.1016/0277-9536(95)00112-K
5. Williams DM, Anderson ES, Winett RA. A review of the outcome expectancy construct in physical activity research. Ann Behav Med. 2005;29(1):70-79. PubMed doi:10.1207/ s15324796abm2901-10 (Pubitemid 40170657)
6. Paluska SA, Schwenk TL. Physical activity and mental health: current concepts. Sports Med. 2000;29(3):167-180. PubMed doi:10.2165/00007256-200029030- 00003 (Pubitemid 30184429)
7. Scully D, Kremer J, Meade MM, Graham R, Dudgeon K. Physical exercise and psychological well being: a critical review. Br J Sports Med. 1998;32(2):111-120. PubMed doi:10.1136/bjsm.32.2.111 (Pubitemid 28271444)
8. Christopher JC. Situating psychological well-being: exploring the cultural roots of its theory and research. J Couns Dev. 1999;77(2):141-152. doi:10.1002/j.1556-6676.1999. tb02434.x
9. Ryff CD. Psychological well-being in adult life. Curr Dir Psychol Sci. 1995;4(4):99-104. doi:10.1111/1467-8721. ep10772395
10. Rejeski WJ, Thompson A. Historical and conceptual roots of exercise psychology. In: Seraganian P, ed. Exercise psychology: the influence of physical exercise on psychological processes. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons; 1993:3-35.
11. Lerner DJ, Levine S. Health-related quality of life: origins, gaps, and directions. Adv Med Sociol. 1994;5:43-65.
12. Baigis Smith J. Public health & the quality of life. Fam Community Health. 1988;10:49-57. PubMed
13. McAuley E, Morris KS. State of the art review: advances in physical activity and mental health: quality of life. Am J Lifestyle Med. 2007;1(5):389-396. doi:10.1177/1559827607303243
14. Camfield L, Skevington SM. On subjective well-being and quality of life. J Health Psychol. 2008;13(6):764-775. PubMed doi:10.1177/1359105308093860
15. John L, Wright R. Quality of life and subjective well-being: historical, conceptual and methodological clarification. Soc Work Ment Health. 2006;4(2):47-65. doi:10.1300/ J200v04n02-04 (Pubitemid 43678612)
16. Ryff CD. Happiness is everything, or is it? Explorations on the meaning of psychological well-being. J Pers Soc Psychol. 1989;57(6):1069-1081. doi:10.1037/0022- 3514.57.6.1069
17. Diener E. Subjective well-being. Psychol Bull. 1984;95(3):542-575. PubMed doi:10.1037/0033- 2909.95.3.542
18. Veenhoven R. Conditions of happiness. Dordrecht, Netherlands: D. Reidel Publishing; 1984.
19. Lucas RE, Diener E, Suh E. Discriminant validity of wellbeing measures. J Pers Soc Psychol. 1996;71(3):616-628. PubMed doi:10.1037/0022-3514.71.3.616
20. Diener E. Guidelines for national indicators of subjective well-being and ill-being. Appl Res QOL. 2006;1(2):151-157.
21. Myers DG. The pursuit of happiness. New York, NY: William Morrow; 1992.
22. Ryan RM, Deci EL. On happiness and human potentials: a review of research on hedonic and eudaimonic wellbeing. Annu Rev Psychol. 2001;52(1):141-166. PubMed doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.52.1.141 (Pubitemid 33705570)
23. Diener E, Lucas R, Schimmack U, Helliwell J. Well-being for public policy. New York, NY: Oxford University Press; 2009.
24. Phillips D. Quality of life: concept, policy and practice. New York: Routledge; 2006.
25. Edmunds J, Ntoumanis N, Duda JL. Adherence and wellbeing in overweight and obese patients referred to an exercise on prescription scheme: a self-determination theory perspective. Psychol Sport Exerc. 2007;8(5):722-740. doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2006.07.006
26. Wilson PM, Rodgers WM. Self-determination theory, exercise, and well-being. In: Hagger MS, Chatzisarantis NLD, eds. Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in exercise and sport. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics; 2007:101-112.
27. Ryan RM, Frederick C. On energy, personality, and health: subjective vitality as a dynamic reflection of well-being. J Pers. 1997;65(3):529-565. PubMed doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.1997.tb00326.x (Pubitemid 127454464)
28. Nix GA, Ryan RM, Manly JB, Deci EL. Revitalization through self-regulation: the effects of autonomous and controlled motivation on happiness and vitality. J Exp Soc Psychol. 1999;35(3):266-284. doi:10.1006/ jesp.1999.1382
29. Smith SJ, Lloyd RJ. Promoting vitality in health and physical education. Qual Health Res. 2006;16(2):249-267. PubMed doi:10.1177/1049732305285069 (Pubitemid 43174368)
30. Rozanski A, Kubzansky LD. Psychological functioning and physical health: a paradigm of flexibility. Psychosom Med. 2005;67(3, suppl 1):S47-S53. PubMed doi:10.1097/01.psy.0000164253.69550.49 (Pubitemid 40721033)
31. Ryan RM, Deci EL. From ego depletion to vitality: theory and findings concerning the facilitation of energy available to the self. Soc Pers Psychol Compass. 2008;2(2):702-717. doi:10.1111/j.1751-9004.2008.00098.x
32. Thayer RE. Energy, tiredness, and tension effects of a sugar snack versus moderate exercise. J Pers Soc Psychol. 1987;52(1):119-125
33. Cited in: Nix GA, Ryan RM, Manly JB, Deci, EL. Revitalization through self-regulation: The effects of autonomous and controlled motivation on happiness and vitality. J of Exp Soc Psychol. 1999;35(3):266-284. PubMed doi:10.1037/0022-3514.52.1.119
34. Noll HH. Social indicators and quality of life research: background, achievements and current trends. In Genov, N, ed. Advances in sociological knowledge over half a century. Wiesbaden, Germany: VS Verlag fur Sozialwissenschaften; 2004:151-181.
35. Anderson RT, King A, Stewart AL, Camacho F, Rejeski WJ. Physical activity counselling in primary care and patient well-being: do patients benefit? Ann Behav Med. 2005;30(2):146-154. PubMed doi:10.1207/ s15324796abm3002-7 (Pubitemid 41377192)
36. Bowling A. Measuring health: a review of quality of life measurement scales. New York, NY: Open University Press; 2005.
37. Diener E, Suh E. Measuring quality of life: economic, social, and subjective indicators. Soc Indic Res. 1997;40(1):189-216. doi:10.1023/A: 1006859511756 (Pubitemid 127715663)
38. Sirgy JM. The psychology of quality of life. Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers; 2002.
39. Bowling A. What things are important in people's lives? A survey of the public's judgments to inform scales of health related quality of life. Soc Sci Med. 1995;41(10):1447-1462. PubMed doi:10.1016/0277-9536(95)00113-L
40. Ware JE, Jr, Sherbourne CD. The MOS 36-item shortform health survey (SF-36): I. conceptual framework and item selection. Med Care. 1992;30(6):473-483. PubMed doi:10.1097/00005650-199206000-00002
41. Diener E, Suh EM, Lucas RE, Smith HL. Subjective well-being: three decades of progress. Psychol Bull. 1999;125(2):276-302. doi:10.1037/0033-2909. 125.2.276
42. Haybron DM. Philosophy and the science of well-being. In: Eid M, Larsen RJ, eds. The science of subjective well being. New York, NY: Guilford; 2008:17-43.
43. DeNeve KM, Cooper H. The happy personality: a metaanalysis of 137 personality traits and subjective wellbeing. Psychol Bull. 1998;124(2):197-229. PubMed doi:10.1037/0033-2909.124.2.197 (Pubitemid 128459544)
44. Diener E, Lucas R. Personality and subjective well-being. In: Kahneman D, Diener E, Schwarz N, eds. Well-being: the foundations of hedonic psychology. New York, NY: Russell-Sage; 1999:213-229.
45. Cantor N, Sanderson CA. Life task participation and well-being: The importance of taking part in daily life. In: Kahneman D, Diener E, Schwarz N, eds. Well-being: the foundations of hedonic psychology. New York, NY: Russell Sage; 1999:230-243.
46. Holahan CJ, Moos RH. Life stressors and mental health: Advances in conceptualizing stress resistance. In: Avison WR, Gotlib IH, eds. Stress and mental health: contemporary issues and prospects for the future. New York, NY: Plenum Press; 1994:213-238.
47. Ryff CD, Singer B. The contours of positive human health. Psychol Inq. 1998;9(1):1-28. doi:10.1207/ s15327965pli0901-1
48. Ryff CD, Keyes CLM. The structure of psychological wellbeing revisited. J Pers Soc Psychol. 1995;69(4):719-727. PubMed doi:10.1037/0022-3514.69.4.719
49. Deci EL, Ryan RM. Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior. New York, NY: Plenum; 1985; 2000.
50. Ryan RM, Huta V, Deci EL. Living well: a self-determination theory perspective on eudaimonia. J Happiness Stud. 2008;9(1):139-170. doi:10.1007/s10902-006-9023-4
51. Shirom A. Feeling vigorous at work? The construct of vigor and the study of positive affect in organizations. In: Gangster D, Perrew PL, eds. Research in organizational stress and well-being. Vol 3. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press; 2004:135-165.
52. Headey B, Kelley J, Wearing A. Dimensions of mental health: life satisfaction, positive affect, anxiety and depression. Soc Indic Res. 1993;29(1):63-82. doi:10.1007/ BF01136197
53. Ventegodt S, Hilden J, Merrick J. Measurement of quality of life I: a methodological framework. The Sci World J. 2003;3:950-961. PubMed doi:10.1100/tsw.2003.75
54. Veenhoven R. Happy life-expectancy: a comprehensive measure of quality-of-life in nations. Soc Indic Res. 1996;39(1):1-58. doi:10.1007/ BF00300831
55. Maslow A. Towards a psychology of being. Princeton, NJ: Van Nostrand; 1962.
56. Cited in: Bowling A. What things are important in people's lives? A survey of the public's judgments to inform scales of health related quality of life. Soc Sci Med. 1995;41(10):1447-1462
57. Felce D. Defining and applying the concept of quality of life. J Intellect Disabil Res. 1997;41(2):126-135. PubMed doi:10.1111/j.1365-2788.1997. tb00689.x (Pubitemid 27424983)
58. Ferrans CE. Definitions and conceptual models of quality of life. In: Liscomb J, Gotay CC, Snyder C, eds. Outcome assessment in cancer: measures, methods, and applications. New York: Cambridge University Press; 2005:14-30.
59. Kaplan MS, Berthelot JM, Feeny D, McFarland BH, Khan S, Orpana H. The predictive validity of health related quality of life measures: mortality in a longitudinal populationbased study. QOL Res. 2007;16(9):1539-1546. PubMed (Pubitemid 47561728)
60. Biddle SJH, Ekkekakis P. Physically active lifestyles and well-being. In: Huppert FA, Keverne B, Baylis N, eds. The science of well-being. Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press; 2005:140-168.
61. Plonczynski DJ. Measurement of motivation for exercise. Health Educ Res. 2000;15(6):695-705. PubMed doi:10.1093/her/15.6.695
62. Kline TJB. Psychological testing: a practical approach to design and evaluation. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage; 2005.
63. Diener E, Emmons RA, Larsen RJ, Griffin S. The Satisfaction With Life scale. J Pers Assess. 1985;49(1):71-75. PubMed doi:10.1207/s15327752jpa4901-13 (Pubitemid 15080385)
64. Dupuy HJ. The Psychological General Well-Being Index. In: Wenger NK, Mattson ME, Furberg CD, Elinson J, eds. Assessment of quality of life in clinical trials of cardiovascular therapies. New York: Le Jacq Publishing; 1984:170-183.
65. Kahneman D, Krueger AB. Developments in the measurement of subjective well-being. J Econ Perspect. 2006;20(1):3-24. doi:10.1257/089533006776526030 (Pubitemid 43572689)
66. Biddle SJH, Fox KR, Boutcher SH, Faulkner GE. The way forward for physical activity and the promotion of psychological well-being. In: Biddle SJH, Fox KR, Boutcher SH, eds. Physical activity and psychological well-being. New York, NY: Routledge; 2000:154-168.
67. McNair DN, Lorr M, Droppleman L. Profile of mood states. San Diego, CA: Education and Industrial Testing Service; 1971.
68. Macone D, Baldari C, Zelli A, Guidetti L. Music and physical activity in psychological well-being. Percept Mot Skills. 2006;103(1):285-295. PubMed doi:10.2466/ pms.103.1.285-295 (Pubitemid 44757103)
69. Berger BG, Motl RW. Exercise and mood: a selective review and synthesis of research employing the profile of mood states. J Appl Sport Psychol. 2000;12(1):69-92 10.1080/10413200008404214.
70. Kubzansky LD, Thurston RC. Emotional vitality and incident coronary heart disease: benefits of healthy psychological functioning. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2007;64(12):1393-1401. PubMed doi:10.1001/archpsyc.64.12.1393 (Pubitemid 350223557)
71. Shirom A, Toker S, Berliner S, Shapira I, Melamed S. The effects of physical fitness and feeling vigorous on self-rated health. Health Psychol. 2008;27(5):567-575. PubMed doi:10.1037/0278-6133.27.5.567
72. McCallum J. The SF-36 in an Australian sample: validating a new, generic health status measure. Aust J Public Health. 1995;19(2):160-166. PubMed doi:10.1111/j.1753-6405.1995.tb00367.x
73. Hemingway H, Stafford M, Stansfeld S, Shipley M, Marmot M. Is the SF-26 a valid measure of change in population health? Results from the Whitehall II study. BMJ. 1997;315:1273. PubMed doi:10.1136/bmj.315.7118.1273
74. McHorney CA, Ware JE, Raczek AE. The MOS 36-item short form health survey (SF-36): II. Psychometric and clinical tests of validity in measuring physical and mental health constructs. Med Care. 1993;31(3):247-263. PubMed doi:10.1097/00005650-199303000-00006
75. Rejeski WJ, Brawley LR, Shumaker SA. Physical activity and health-related quality of life. Exerc Sport Sci Rev. 1996;24(1):71-108. PubMed (Pubitemid 126422671)
76. Fitzgerald JT, Davis WK, Connell CM, Hess GE, Funnell MM, Hiss RG. Development and validation of the Diabetes Care Profile. Eval Health Prof. 1996;19(2):208-230. PubMed doi:10.1177/016327879601900205 (Pubitemid 26162488)
77. Rogerson RJ. Environmental and health-related quality of life: conceptual and methodological similarities. Soc Sci Med. 1995;41(10):1373-1382. PubMed doi:10.1016/0277-9536(95)00122-N
78. Strine TW, Kroenke K, Dhingra S, et al. The association between depression, health-related quality of life, social support, life satisfaction, and disability in communitydwelling US adults. J Nerv Ment Dis. 2009;197(1):61-64. PubMed doi:10.1097/NMD.0b013e3181924ad8
79. Barger SD, Donoho CJ, Wayment HA. The relative contributions of race/ethnicity, socioeconomic status, health, and social relationships to life satisfaction in the United states. QOL Res. 2009;18(2):179-189. PubMed
80. Fitzpatrick R. Measurement issues in health-related quality of life: challenges for health psychology. Psychol Health. 2000;15(1):99-108. doi:10.1080/08870440008400291
81. Revicki DA, Kaplan RM. Relationship between psychometric and utility-based approaches to the measurement of health-related quality of life. QOL Res. 1993;2:477-487. PubMed (Pubitemid 24035220)
82. Penninx BW, Guralnik JM, Bandeen-Roche K, et al. The protective effect of emotional vitality on adverse health outcomes in disabled older women. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2000;48(11):1359-1366. PubMed
83. Wendel-Vos G, Schuit A, Tijhuis M, Kromhout D. Leisure time physical activity and health-related quality of life: cross-sectional and longitudinal associations. QOL Res. 2004;13(3):667-677. PubMed (Pubitemid 38526540)
84. Vuillemin A, Boini S, Bertrais S, et al. Leisure time physical activity and health-related quality of life. Prev Med. 2005;41(2):562-569. PubMed doi:10.1016/j. ypmed.2005.01.006 (Pubitemid 40732372)
85. Vlachopoulos SP, Karavani E. Psychological needs and subjective vitality in exercise: a cross-gender situational test of the needs universality hypothesis. Hell J Psychol. 2009;6(2):207-222.
86. Lotan M, Merrick J, Carmeli E. A review of physical activity and well-being. Int J Adolesc Med Health. 2005;17(1):23-31. PubMed doi:10.1515/IJAMH.2005.17.1.23 (Pubitemid 40613745)
87. McAuley E, Rudolph DL. Physical activity, aging, and psychological well-being. J Aging Phys Act. 1995;3(1):67-96.
88. Morris F. Review of physical activity and psychological well-being. Int J Sport Psychol. 2002;33(4):444-446.
89. Biddle SJH, Fox KR, Boutcher SH, eds. Physical activity and psychological well-being. New York, NY: Routledge; 2000.
90. Rejeski WJ, Mihalko SL. Physical activity and quality of life in older adults. J Gerontol. 2001;56A(2):23-35. PubMed (Pubitemid 33095236)
91. Mock V, Pickett M, Ropka ME, et al. Fatigue and quality of life outcomes of exercise during cancer treatment. Cancer Pract. 2001;9(3):119-127. PubMed doi:10.1046/j.1523- 5394.2001.009003119.x (Pubitemid 32390840)
92. Tessier S, Vuillemin A, Bertrais S, et al. Association between leisure-time physical activity and health-related quality of life changes over time. Prev Med. 2007;44(3):202-208. PubMed doi:10.1016/j.ypmed.2006.11.012 (Pubitemid 46335925)
93. Gillison FB, Skevington SM, Sato A, Standage M, Evangelidou S. The effects of exercise interventions on quality of life in clinical and healthy populations: a metaanalysis. Soc Sci Med. 2009;68(9):1700-1710. PubMed doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2009.02.028
94. Bize R, Johnson JA, Plotnikoff RC. Physical activity level and health-related quality of life in the general adult population: a systematic review. Prev Med. 2007;45(6):401-415. PubMed doi:10.1016/j.ypmed.2007.07.017 (Pubitemid 350191951)
95. Conn VS, Hafdahl AR, Brown LM. Meta-analysis of quality- of-life outcomes from physical activity interventions. Nurs Res. 2009;58(3):175-183. PubMed doi:10.1097/ NNR.0b013e318199b53a
96. Higginson IJ, Carr AJ. Measuring quality of life: using quality of life measures in the clinical setting. BMJ. 2001;322:1297. PubMed doi:10.1136/bmj.322.7297.1297
97. Mutrie N, Parfitt G. Physical activity and its link with mental, social and moral health in young people. In Biddle SJH, Sallis JF, Cavill N, eds. (Eds.), Young and active? Young people and health-enhancing physical activity: evidence and implications. London, England: Health Education Authority; 1998:49-68.
98. Netz Y, Wu M, Becker BJ, Tenenbaum G. Physical activity and psychological well-being in advanced age: a meta-analysis of intervention studies. Psychol Aging. 2005;20(2):272-284. PubMed doi:10.1037/0882- 7974.20.2.272 (Pubitemid 41023407)
99. Lampinen P, Heikkinen RL, Kauppinen M, Heikkinen E. Activity as a predictor of mental well-being among older adults. Aging Ment Health. 2006;10(5):454-466. PubMed doi:10.1080/13607860600640962 (Pubitemid 44567652)
100. Biddle SJH, Gorely T, Stensel DJ. Health-enhancing physical activity and sedentary behaviour in children and adolescents. J Sports Sci. 2004;22(8):679-701. PubMed doi:10.1080/02640410410001712412 (Pubitemid 39220414)
101. O'Connor PJ, Puetz TW. Chronic physical activity and feelings of energy and fatigue. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2005;37(2):299-305. PubMed doi:10.1249/01. MSS.0000152802.89770.CF (Pubitemid 40204638)
102. Brown DW, Brown DR, Heath GW, et al. Associations between physical activity dose and health-related quality of life. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2004;36(5):890-896. PubMed doi:10.1249/01.MSS.0000126778.77049.76 (Pubitemid 38596397)
103. Hausenblas HA, Symons Downs D. Exercise dependence: A systematic review. Psychol Sport Exerc. 2002;3(2):89-123. doi:10.1016/S1469-0292(00)00015-7
104. Bryan A, Hutchison E, Seals DR, Allen DL. A transdisciplinary model integrating genetic, physiological, and psychological correlates of voluntary exercise. Health Psychol. 2007;26(1):30-39. PubMed doi:10.1037/0278- 6133.26.1.30 (Pubitemid 46072022)
105. Carels RA, Coit C, Young K, Berger B. Exercise makes you feel good, but does feeling good make you exercise? An examination of obese dieters. J Sport Exer Psychol. 2007;29(6):706-722. PubMed
106. Thøgersen-Ntoumani C, Fox KR, Ntoumanis N. Relationships between exercise and three components of mental well-being in corporate employees. Psychol Sport Exerc. 2005;6(6):609-627. doi:10.1016/j.psychsport. 2004.12.004 (Pubitemid 41671301)
107. Schmalz DL, Deane GD, Birch LL, Davison KK. A longitudinal assessment of the links between physical activity and self-esteem in early adolescent non-Hispanic females. J Adolesc Health. 2007;41(6):559-565. PubMed doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2007.07.001 (Pubitemid 350102802)
108. Arent SM, Rogers RJ, Landers DM. Determining a causal link between physical activity and selected mental health variables. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2002;34(5):5. doi:10.1097/00005768-200205001-01703
109. McAuley E, Blissmer B, Marquez DX, Jerome GJ, Kramer AF, Katula J. Social relations, physical activity, and wellbeing in older adults. Prev Med. 2000;31(5):608-617. PubMed doi:10.1006/pmed.2000.0740
110. McAuley E, Talbot HM, Martinez S. Manipulating selfefficacy in the exercise environment in women: Influences on affective responses. Health Psychol. 1999;18(3):288-294. PubMed doi:10.1037/0278-6133.18.3.288 (Pubitemid 29239217)
111. Wilson PM, Longley K, Muon S, Rodgers WM, Murray TC. Examining the contributions of perceived psychological need satisfaction to well-being in exercise. J Appl Biobehav Res. 2006;11(3-4):243-264. doi:10.1111/j.1751- 9861.2007.00008.x
112. Huang CH, Lee LY, Chang ML. The influences of personality and motivation on exercise participation and quality of life. Soc Behav Pers. 2007;35(9):1189-1210. doi:10.2224/ sbp.2007.35.9.1189
113. Gillison FB, Standage M, Skevington SM. Relationships among adolescents' weight perceptions, exercise goals, exercise motivation, quality of life and leisuretime exercise behaviour: a self-determination theory approach. Health Educ Res. 2006;21(6):836-847. PubMed doi:10.1093/her/cyl139 (Pubitemid 44899946)
114. Hambleton P, Keeling S, McKenzie M. The jungle of quality of life: mapping measures and meanings for elders. Aust J Ageing. 2009;28(1):3-6. PubMed doi:10.1111/j.1741- 6612.2008.00331.x
115. Fox KR. The influence of physical activity on mental wellbeing. Public Health Nutr. 1999;2(3):411-418. PubMed doi:10.1017/S1368980099000567 (Pubitemid 29529020)
116. Bauman AE, Sallis JF, Dzewaltowski DA, Owen N. Toward a better understanding of the influences on physical activity: the role of determinants, correlates, causal variables, mediators, moderators, and confounders. Am J Prev Med. 2002;23(2, suppl 1):S5-S14. PubMed doi:10.1016/S0749- 3797(02)00469-5
117. Department of Health. The health of the nation: a strategy for health for England. London, England: HMSO; 1993.
118. Watson D, Clark LA, Tellegen A. Development and validation of brief measures of positive and negative affect: The PANAS scales. J Pers Soc Psychol. 1988;54(6):1063-1070. PubMed doi:10.1037/0022-3514.54.6.1063
119. Hunt SM, McEwan J, McKenna SP. Measuring health status. London, England: Croom Helm; 1986.
120. EuroQoL Group. A new facility for the measurement of health-related quality of life. Health Policy. 1990;16(3):199-208. PubMed doi:10.1016/0168- 8510(90)90421-9