On the electrification of road transport - Learning rates and price forecasts for hybrid-electric and battery-electric vehicles

Energy Policy

Volumn 48, Issue , 2012, Pages 374-393

  Weiss, Martin ^a   Patel, Martin K ^b   Junginger, Martin ^b   Perujo, Adolfo ^a   Bonnel, Pierre ^a   van Grootveld, Geert ^a  

^a JOINT RESEARCH CENTRE   (Italy)

^b UTRECHT UNIVERSITY   (Netherlands)

Author keywords

Battery electric vehicles; Hybrid electric vehicles; Technological learning

Indexed keywords

GLOBAL LEARNING; LEARNING RATES; LONG-TERM POLICIES; PLUG-INS; PRICE FORECASTS; ROAD TRANSPORTS; TECHNOLOGICAL LEARNING; VEHICLE TECHNOLOGY;

COSTS; ELECTRIC UTILITIES; ELECTRIC VEHICLES; FORECASTING; FOSSIL FUELS;

HYBRID VEHICLES;

ELECTRIC VEHICLE; ENERGY POLICY; FORECASTING METHOD; FOSSIL FUEL; LEARNING; PRICE DETERMINATION; PRICE DYNAMICS; ROAD TRANSPORT;

EID: 84865023876     PISSN: 03014215     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.enpol.2012.05.038     Document Type: Article

References (121)

1. ACEA, 2010. Overview of tax incentives for electric vehicles in the EU. ACEA-European Automobile Manufacturers' Association. Source: (retrieved 5.08.11.). http://www.acea.be/images/uploads/files/20100420_EV_tax_overview.pdf.
2. AP, 2011. Autos. AP-Autoplenum. Source: (retrieved 8.08.11.). http://www.autoplenum.de/Automarken.
3. Argote L., Epple D. Learning curves in manufacturing. Science 1990, 247:920-924.
4. Bakker, S., 2011. Competing expectations: The case of the hydrogen car. Dissertation Utrecht University. Utrecht, the Netherlands.
5. BC, 1998. The history of American technology-Fall 1998. The Automobile industry. BC-Bryant College. Source: (retrieved 8.12.11.). http://web.bryant.edu/~ehu/h364/materials/cars/.
6. BCG Perspectives on experience 1972, BCG-Boston Consulting Group Inc., Boston, USA. third edition.
7. Bellis, M., 2010. History of electric vehicles. About.com. Source: (retrieved 22.11.2011.). http://inventors.about.com/od/estartinventions/a/History-Of-Electric-Vehicles.htm.
8. Beresteanu A., Li S. Gasoline prices, government support, and the demand for hybrid cars in the U.S. International Economic Review 2011, 52:161-182.
9. Blanco, S., 2010. Think builds 2,500th Think City in Europe; US operations are ahead of schedule. Source: (retrieved 08.08.11.). http://green.autoblog.com/.
10. Blessing, U., 2008. Th!ink City 2008. Source: (retrieved 08.08.11.). http://www.hybrid-autos.info/Elektro-Fahrzeuge/.
11. BMW, 2011a. All BMWs. BMW of North America, LLC. Source: (retrieved 08.08.11.). http://www.bmwusa.com/standard/content/allbmws/default.aspx.
12. BMW, 2011b. BMW. BMW AG. Source: (retrieved 08.08.11.). http://www.bmw.de/de/de/index.html.
13. Book, M., Groll, M., Mosquet, X., Rizoulis, D., Sticher, G. 2009. The comeback of the electric car? Boston Consulting Group. Source: (retrieved 24.05.11.). http://www.bcg.com/documents/%20file15404.pdf.
14. Brambach, H., 2009. Redemanuskript Shell-Energie-Dialog Stuttgart: Auto-Mobilität im Wandel-Alternative Antriebe vor dem Durchbruch? Verband des Kraftfahrzeuggewerbes Baden-Württemberg e.V. Source: (retrieved 16.05.11.). http://www-static.shell.com/static/deu/downloads/aboutshell/our_commitment/energy_dialogue/2009/stuttgart_041109/speech_brambach_041109.pdf.
15. 2 and Li-S batteries with high energy storage. Nature Materials 2012, 11:19-29.
16. Burke, A., Zhao, H., Miller, M., 2011. Comparing fuel economies and costs of advanced vs. conventional vehicles. In: Ogden, J., Anderson, A. (Eds.), Sustainable Transportation Energy Pathways - A Research Summary for Decision Makers. University of California, Davis. USA.
17. BW, 1997. Japan's hybrid cars (int'l edition). BW-Bloomberg Businessweek. Source: (retrieved 16.05.11.). http://www.businessweek.com/archives/1997/b3557013.arc.htm.
18. Cadillac, 2011. Cadillac vehicles. General Motors Company. Source: (retrieved 08.08.11.). http://www.cadillac.com/vehicles/.
19. CGA, 2011. CGA-Consumer Guide Automotive. Source: (retrieved 08.08.11.). http://consumerguideauto.howstuffworks.com/.
20. Chambers, N., 2011. Nissan clarifies: 10,000 LEAFs built by end of March, faster charging upgrade being "Studied". Plugincars. Source: (retrieved 08.08.11.). http://www.plugincars.com/nissan-clarifies-10000-leafs-built-end-march-faster-charging-upgrade-being-studied-106922.html.
21. Chandra A., Gulati S., Kandlikar M. Green drivers or free riders? An analysis of tax rebates for hybrid vehicles. Journal of Environmental Economics and Management 2010, 60:78-93.
22. Chevrolet, 2011. Chevrolet vehicles. General Motors Company. Source: (retrieved 08.08.11.). http://www.chevrolet.com/vehicles/.
23. Citroën, 2011. Citroën C-zero. Source: Citroën Deutschland GmbH (retrieved 08.08.11.). http://www.citroen.de/.
24. Cowan R., Hultén S. Escaping lock-In: The case of the electric vehicle. Technological Forecasting and Social Change 1996, 53:61-79.
25. Csere, C., 2002. 2003 Honda Civic Hybrid-road test. Car and Driver. Source: (retrieved 08.08.11.). http://www.caranddriver.com/reviews/car/02q2/2003_honda_civic_hybrid-road_test.
26. Daimler, 2010. Mercedes-Benz im Dezember und vierten Quartal Premiummarke mit stärkstem Zuwachs. Daimler AG. Source: (retrieved 16.05.11.). http://www.daimler.com/dccom/0-5-7153-49-1264482-1-0-0-0-0-0-9293-7145-0-0-0-0-0-0-0.html.
27. Daimler, 2011. The S-Class. Mercedes-Benz USA LLC. Source: (retrieved 08.08.11.). http://www.mbusa.com/mercedes/vehicles/class/class-S.
28. DB, 2011. Deutsche Bank revises li-ion battery cost forecasts downward to $250/kWh by 2020. DB - Deutsche Bank. Green Auto Blog. Source: (accessed 02.09.11.). http://green.autoblog.com/2011/01/06/deutsche-bank-li-ion-battery-cost-forecast-per-kwh/.
29. de Jong R., Åhman M., Jacobs R., Dumitrescu E. Hybrid-electric vehicles: An overview of current technology and its application in developing and transitional countries 2009, UNEP - United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), Nairobi, Kenya.
30. Dinger, A., Martin, R., Mosquet, X., Rabl, M., Rizoulis, D., Russo, M., Sticher, G., 2010. Batteries for electric cars - Challenges, opportunities, and the outlook to 2020. The Boston Consulting Group. Source: (accessed 11.04.11.). http://www.bcg.com/documents/file36615.pdf.
31. DOE, 2011. Federal tax credits for electric vehicles. DOE-US Department of Energy. Source: (retrieved 08.12.11.). http://www.fueleconomy.gov/feg/taxevb.shtml.
32. Dutton J.M., Thomas A. Treating progress functions as a managerial opportunity. The Academy of Management Review 1984, 9:235-247.
33. EARPA, 2003. R&D Technology roadmap - A contribution to the identification of key technologies for a sustainable development of European road transport. EARPA - European Automotive Research Partners Association. Source: (retrieved 23.08.11.). http://www.furore-network.com/documents/furore_rod_map_final.pdf.
34. Eberle U., von Helmolt R. Sustainable transportation based on electric vehicle concepts: a brief overview. Energy and Environmental Science 2010, 3:689-699.
35. EC Commission Directive 2001/116/EC of 20 December 2001 adapting to technical progress Council Directive 70/156/EEC on the approximation of the laws of the Member States relating to the type-approval of motor vehicles and their trailers. EC - European Commission. Official Journal of the European Communities 2001, L 18:1-115.
36. EC Commission Directive 2007/46/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 5 September 2007 establishing a framework for the approval of motor cars and their trailers, and of systems, components and separate technical units intended for such cars. EC - European Commission. Official Journal of the European Union 2007, L263:1-160.
37. EC, 2009a. A sustainable future for transport. EC - European Commission. Source: (retrieved 14.02.11.). http://ec.Europa.eu/transport/publications/doc/2009_future_of_transport_en.pdf.
38. 2 emissions from light-duty vehicles. EC - European Commission. Official Journal of the European Union 2009, L 140:1-15.
39. EC White paper - Roadmap to a single European transport area - Towards a competitive and resource efficient transport system. COM(2011) 144 final 2011, EC - European Commission, Brussels, Belgium.
40. EC, 2011b. Green cars initiative. EC - European Commission. Source: (retrieved 14.02.11.). http://ec.europa.eu/research/transport/info/green_cars_initiative_en.html.
41. EC Electrification of road transport at the JRC 2011, EC - European Commission.
42. Edwards, R., Larivé J.-F., Mahieu V., Rouveirolles P., 2008. Well-to-wheels analysis of future automotive fuels and powertrains in the European context-tank-to-wheels report, Version3. JRC, EUCAR, CONCAWE. Source: (retrieved 22.11.11.). http://ies.jrc.ec.europa.eu/uploads/media/V3.1%20TTW%20Report%2007102008.pdf.
43. EEA, 2009. Exceedance of air quality limit values in urban areas (CSI 004)-Assessment published December 2009. EEA - European Environmental Agency. Source: (accessed 11.10.11.). http://www.eea.Eopa.eu/data-and-maps/indicators/.
44. EEA, 2010. European Union emission inventory report 1990-2008 under the UNECE convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution (LRTAP). EEA - European Environmental Agency. EEA Technical Report No 7/2010. Copenhagen, Denmark.
45. EGCI, 2010. European roadmap electrification of road transport. Version 2, November 2010. EGCI - European Green Car Initiative. Source: (retrieved 22.11.11.). http://www.green-cars-initiative.eu/public/documents/Roadmap%20Electrification.pdf/view.
46. Emadi A., Rajashekara K., Williamson S.S., Lukic S.M. Topological overview of hybrid electric and fuel cell vehicular power system architectures and configurations. IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology 2005, 54:763-770.
47. EPA, 2006. Latest findings on national air quality-status and trends through 2006. EPA - Environmental Protection Agency. Source: (retrieved 14.02.11.). http://www.epa.gov/air/airtrends/2007/%20report/highlights.pdf.
48. Ernst, C.-S., Hackbarth, A., Madlener, R., Lunz, B., Sauer, D.U., Eckstein, L., 2011. Battery sizing for serial plug-in hybrid electric vehicles: a model-based economic analysis for Germany. FCN Working Paper No. 14/2010. RWTH Aachen, Germany.
49. Fontaras G., Pistikopoulos P., Samaras Z. Experimental evaluation of hybrid vehicle fuel economy and pollutant emissions over real-world simulation driving cycles. Atmospheric Environment 2008, 42:4023-4035.
50. Ford, 2011. Ford vehicles. Ford Motor Company. Source: (retrieved 08.08.11.). http://www.ford.com/vehicles/.
51. Fulton, M., 2011. 12th Five year plan - Chinese leadership towards a low carbon economy. Deutsche Bank Group. Source: (retrieved 04.08.11.). http://www.dbcca.com/dbcca/EN/_media/China_12th_Five_Year_Plan.pdf.
52. GCC, 2010a. Mitsubishi Motors has produced 5,000 i-MiEVs to date. GCC - Green Car Congress. Source: (retrieved 08.08.11.). http://www.greencarcongress.com/2010/11/mmc-20101124.html?utm_source=feedburner&utm_medium=feed&utm_campaign=Feed:+greencarcongress/TrBK+%28Green+Car+Congress%29.
53. GCC, 2010b. BYD Auto to begin sales of F3DM plug-in to individuals. GCC - Green Car Congress. Source: (retrieved 02.09.11.). http://www.greencarcongress.com/2010/03/byd-20100323.html%23more.
54. GCC, 2011. Chrysler launches the 2011 GEM line. GCC - Green Car Congress. Source: (retrieved 08.08.11.). http://www.greencarcongress.com/2011/01/gem-20110107.html.
55. GNE, 2011. Specification - Toyota. GNE - Goo-Net Exchange: Source: (retrieved 08.08.11.). http://exchange.goo-net.com/.
56. Grünweg, T., 2008. Stromschlag für Europa. Spiegel Online. Source: (retrieved 08.08.11.). http://www.spiegel.de/auto/aktuell/0,1518,568814,00.html.
57. Hardy K. Vehicle technologies program. Presentation given at the IEEE-SA SCC40 P1809 Meeting 2010, Argonne National Laboratory, US Department of Energy, Argonne, USA.
58. HC, 2008. February 2008 Hybrid Market Dashboard. HC - HybridCars.com. Source: (retrieved 12.12.11.). http://www.hybridcars.com/files/feb08-hybrid-market-dashboard.pdf.
59. HC, 2009. February 2009 Hybrid Market Dashboard. HC - HybridCars.com. Source: (retrieved 12.12.11.). http://www.hybridcars.com/files/feb09-hybrid-market-dashboard-v2.pdf.
60. HC, 2011. Auto alternatives for the 21th century. HC-HybridCars.com. Source: (retrieved 22.11.11.). http://www.hybridcars.com/hybrid-technology.
61. Honda, 2009. Honda reaches 300,000 units in cumulative global sales of hybrid vehicles. Honda Motor Co., Ltd. Source: (retrieved 16.05.11.). http://www.hondaeu-news.com/en/news/%20index.pmode/modul,detail,7,1076-DEFAULT,21,text,1/index.pmode.
62. Honda, 2011a. Honda automobiles. American Honda Motor Co., Inc. Source: (retrieved 08.08.11.). http://automobiles.honda.com/.
63. Honda, 2011b. Honda Automobile. Honda Deutschland GmbH. Source: (retrieved 08.08.11.). http://www.honda.de/automobile/index.php.
64. Hultman N.E., Koomey J.G. The risk of surprise in energy technology costs. Environmental Research Letters 2007, 2:1-6.
65. IEA Experience curves for energy technology policy 2000, IEA - International Energy Agency, Paris, France.
66. IEA Energy technology perspectives - Scenario's and Strategies to 2050 2008, IEA - International Energy Agency, Paris, France.
67. 2 - Moving toward sustainability 2009, IEA - International Energy Agency, Paris, France.
68. IEA World energy outlook 2010 2010, IEA - International Energy Agency, Paris, France.
69. IEA, 2011. Technology roadmap - electric and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles. IEA - International Energy Agency. Source: (retrieved 25.01.11.). http://www.iea.org/papers/2011/EV_PHEV_Roadmap.pdf.
70. ITF Reducing transport greenhouse gas emissions - trends and data 2010 2010, ITF - International Transport Forum, Paris, France.
71. Junginger H.M., van Sark W., Faaij A. Technological learning in the energy sector 2010, Edward Elgar Publishing, Cheltenham, UK.
72. Kahouli-Brahmi S. Technological learning in energy-environment-economy modeling: a survey. Energy Policy 2008, 36:138-162.
73. KFZ, 2011. KfZ-Betrieb online. Source: (retrieved 08.08.11.). http://www.kfz-betrieb.vogel.de/wirtschaft/articles/312443/.
74. Kobayashi S., Plotkin S., Kahn Ribeiro S. Energy efficiency technologies for road vehicles. Energy Efficiency 2009, 2:125-137.
75. Kohlenberg, K., 2008. Der Herausforderer. Zeit Online. Source: (retrieved 08.08.11.). http://www.zeit.de/2007/13/Elektroauto/komplettansicht.
76. Lee, H., Lovellette, G., 2011. Will electric cars transform the U.S. vehicle market? An analysis of the key determinants. Discussion Paper 2011-08. Harvard University, Cambridge, USA. Source: (retrieved 05.08.11.). http://belfercenter.ksg.harvard.edu/files/Lee%20Lovellette%20Electric%20Vehicles%20DP%202011%20web.pdf.
77. Lexus, 2011a. Lexus vehicles. Toyota Motor Sales, U.S.A., Inc. Source: (retrieved 08.08.11.). http://www.lexus.com/models/allVehicles/index.html.
78. Lexus, 2011b. Lexus Deutschland GmbH. Source: (retrieved 09.08.11.). http://www.lexus.de.
79. Lincoln, 2011. Lincoln MKZ. Ford Motor Company. Source: (retrieved 08.08.11.). http://www.lincoln.com/cars/mkz/.
80. Lipman, T.E., Delucchi, M.A., 2003. Hybrid-electric vehicle design - Retail and life cycle cost analysis. Report UCD-ITS-RR-03-01 prepared for The Energy Foundation. San Francisco, USA.
81. Lowe M., Tokuoka S., Trigg T., Gereffi G. Lithium-ion batteries for electric vehicles: The U.S. value chain 2010, Center on Globalization, Governance & Competitiveness, Duke University, Durham, USA.
82. Luis4U, 2011. Luis4U. Luis Motors GmbH. Source: (retrieved 08.08.11.). http://4u.luis.de/.
83. McConnell, V., Turrentine T., 2010. Should hybrid cars be subsidized? Resources for the Future. Washington D.C., USA.
84. Mitsubishi. 2010. Mitsubishi i-MiEV. Mitsubishi Motors Deutschland GmbH. Source: (retrieved 08.08.11.). http://www.imiev.de/impressum.html.
85. Nagelhout D., Ros J.P.M. Elektrisch autorijden - Evaluatie van transities op basis van systeemopties. Report 500083010 2009, PBL - Planbureau voor de Leefomgeving, Bilthoven, The Netherlands.
86. Neij L. Cost development of future technologies for power generation-a study based on experience curves and complementary bottom-up assessments. Energy Policy 2008, 36:2200-2211.
87. Nemry F., Brons M. Plug-in hybrid and battery-electric vehicles - Market penetration scenarios of electric drive vehicles. Report JRC 58748 2010, JRC - Joint Research Centre, Seville, Spain.
88. NHTSA, 2011. Statement of the national highway traffic safety administration on formal safety defect investigation of post-crash fire risk in Chevy Volts. NHTSA - National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. Source: (retrieved 25.01.12.). http://www.nhtsa.gov/PR/Volt.
89. Nissan, 2011a. Nissan Leaf. Nissan Nederland. Source: (retrieved 22.11.11.). http://www.nissan.nl/%23vehicles/electricvehicles/leaf.
90. Nissan, 2011b. Nissan Altima. Nissan North America Inc. Source: (retrieved 08.08.11.). http://www.nissanusa.com/altima/?next=header.vlp.postcard.picture.thumbnail.
91. OICA, 2010. Production statistics. OICA - International Organization of Motor Vehicle Manufacturers. Source: (retrieved 15.05.11.). http://oica.net/category/production-statistics/.
92. Pander, J., 2009. Batterieentwicklung bei Toyota-Im Herzen der Hybridwelt. Spiegel Online. Source: (retrieved 11.08.11.). http://www.spiegel.de/auto/aktuell/0,1518,629496,00.html.
93. Perujo A., Ciuffo B. The introduction of electric vehicles in the private fleet: Potential impact on the electric supply system and on the environment. A case study for the Province of Milan, Italy. Energy Policy 2010, 38:4549-4561.
94. Porsche, 2011a. Porsche vehicles. Porsche Cars North America Source: (retrieved 08.08.11.). http://www.porsche.com/usa/.
95. Porsche, 2011b. Porsche. Dr. Ing. h.c. F. Porsche AG. Source: (retrieved 08.08.11.). http://www.porsche.com/germany/.
96. PR, 2010. Hybrid-electric vehicles for fleet markets. PR - Pike Research. Cited from: (retrieved 19.04.12.). http://www.greencarcongress.com/2010/09/pike-20100917.html.
97. RBSC, 2011: Powertrain 2020 - The Li-ion battery value chain - trends and implications. RBSC - Roland Berger Strategic Consultants. Source: (retrieved 25.01.12.). http://www.rolandberger.com/media/pdf/Roland_Berger_The_Li_Ion_Battery_Value_Chain_20110801.pdf.
98. Robinson, A., 2001. 2001 Toyota Prius-road test. Car and Driver. Source: (retrieved 08.08.11.). http://www.caranddriver.com/reviews/car/00q1/2001_toyota_prius-road_test.
99. Samaras C., Meisterling K. Life cycle assessment of greenhouse gas emissions from plug-in hybrid vehicles: implications for policy. Environmental Science and Technology 2008, 42:3170-3176.
100. Sams, T., 2011. The cost efficient electrified powertrain. AVL List GmbH. Presentation at the Ulysses workshop, 21 May 2011. Brussels, Belgium.
101. Smiles, 2011. Produkte aus der Smiles-World. Smiles AG. Source: (retrieved 08.08.11.). http://www.smiles-world.de/produkte.
102. Smokers, R., Vermeulen, R., van Mieghem, R., Gense, R., Skinner, I., Fergusson, M., MacKay, E., ten Brink, P., Fontaras, G., Samaras, Z., 2006. Review and analysis of the reduction potential and costs of technological and other measures to reduce CO2 emissions from passenger cars. TNO Report 06.OR.PT.040.2/RSM. Delft, the Netherlands.
103. Tesla, 2010. Tesla delivers 100th German car during race of champions. Tesla Motors Ltd. Source: (retrieved 08.08.11.). http://www.teslamotors.com/about/press/releases/tesla-delivers-100th-german-car-during-race-champions.
104. 2 aspects of future vehicle options in Europe under new energy policy scenarios. Energy Policy 2010, 38:7142-7151.
105. Toyota, 2011a. World sales of TMC hybrids top 2 million units. Toyota Motor Corporation. Source: (retrieved 16.05.10.). http://www.toyota-global.com/terms_of_use/index.html.
106. Toyota, 2011b. Toyota vehicles. Toyota Motor Sales, U.S.A, Inc. Source: (retrieved 08.08.11.). http://www.toyota.com/.
107. Toyota, 2011c. Toyota Modelle. Toyota Deutschland GmbH. Source: (retrieved 08.08.11.). http://www.toyota.de/cars/new_cars/index.aspx.
108. USDE, 2011a. Alternative fuels and advanced vehicles data center. USDE - United States Department of Energy. Source: (retrieved 16.05.11.). http://www.afdc.energy.gov/afdc/data/vehicles.html%23afv_hev.
109. USDE, 2011b. US gasoline and diesel retail prices. USDE - United States Department of Energy. Source: (retrieved 26.07.11.). http://wikiposit.org/w?filter=Energy/US%20Department%20of%20Energy/Petroleum/U.S.%20Gasoline%20and%20Diesel%20Retail%20Prices/.
110. VW, 2011a. Touareg. VW-Volkswagen of America Inc. Source: (retrieved 08.08.11.). http://www.vw.com/en/models/touareg/gallery.html.
111. VW, 2011b. Touareg. VW-Volkswagen AG. Source: (retrieved 08.08.11.). http://www.volkswagen.de/de/models/touareg.html.
112. WB, 2007. World development indicators - air pollution. WB - World Bank. Source: (retrieved 14.02.11.). http://siteresources.worldbank.org/DATASTATISTICS/Resources/table3_13.pdf.
113. WB, 2011. Data - inflation, GDP deflator. WB - World Bank. Source: (retrieved 10.05.11.). http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.DEFL.KD.ZG.
114. Weiss M., Junginger M.H., Patel M.K., Blok K. A review of experience curve analyses for energy demand technologies. Technological Forecasting and Social Change 2010, 77:411-428.
115. Weiss M., Bonnel P., Hummel R., Provenza A., Manfredi U. On-road emissions of light-duty vehicles in Europe. Environmental Science and Technology 2011, 45:8575-8581.
116. Wikipedia, 2011. Nissan Leaf. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. Source: (retrieved 08.08.11.). http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nissan_Leaf.
117. Wikipedia, 2012. Hybrid electric vehicle. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. Source: (retrieved 18.04.12.). http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hybrid_electric_vehicle%23Sales_and_rankings.
118. Wüst C. Zwitter des Zeitgeists. Der Spiegel, No. 15., 7 April 2012 2012, Spiegel Verlag, Hamburg, Germany.
119. Xiang, Z., 2010. China to subsidize electric, hybrid car purchases in five cities. Source: (retrieved 05.08.11.). http://news.xinhuanet.com/english2010/china/2010-06/01/c_13327814.htm.
120. X-Rates, 2011. X-Rates - currency exchange rates. Source: (retrieved 10.05.11.). http://www.x-rates.com.
121. Yu C.F., van Sark W.G.J.H.M., Alsema E.A. Unraveling the photovoltaic technology learning curve by incorporation of input price changes and scale effects. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 2011, 15:324-337.