Differences between Neandertal and modern human infant and child growth models

Journal of Human Evolution

Volumn 63, Issue 1, 2012, Pages 140-149

  Martín González, Jesús A ^a,b   Mateos, Ana ^a   Goikoetxea, Idoia ^a   Leonard, William R ^c   Rodríguez, Jesús ^a  

^a CENTRO NACIONAL DE INVESTIGACIÓN SOBRE LA EVOLUCIÓN HUMANA CENIEH   (Spain)

^b UNIVERSITY OF BURGOS   (Spain)

^c NORTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Early childhood; Growth models; Homo neanderthalensis; Homo sapiens; Infancy

Indexed keywords

COMPARATIVE STUDY; FOSSIL RECORD; GROWTH RATE; HEIGHT; HUMAN EVOLUTION; NEANDERTHAL; NUMERICAL MODEL; ONTOGENY;

HOMO SAPIENS; HOMO SAPIENS NEANDERTHALENSIS;

EID: 84863514002     PISSN: 00472484     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.jhevol.2012.04.005     Document Type: Article

References (132)

1. Neandertal Burials. Excavations of the Dederiyeh Cave, Afrin, Syria 2003, KW Publications Ltd., Auckland. T. Akazawa, S. Muhesen (Eds.).
2. Akazawa T., Muhesen S., Ishida H., Kondo O., Griggo C. New discovery of a Neandertal child burial from the Dederiyeh cave in Syria. Paléorient 1999, 25:129-142.
3. Arsuaga J.L., Villaverde V., Quam R., Martínez I., Carretero J.M., Lorenzo C., Gracia A. New Neandertal remains from Cova Negra (Valencia, Spain). J. Hum. Evol. 2007, 52:31-58.
4. Badoux D.M. Probabilité d'une différenciation due au climat chez les Néandertaliens d'Europe. Anthropologie 1965, 69:75-82.
5. Bailey S.E., Hublin J.-J. Dental remains from the Grotte du Renne at Arcy-sur-Cure (Yonne). J. Hum. Evol. 2006, 50:485-508.
6. Bastir M., O'Higgins P., Rosas A. Facial ontogeny in Neandertals and modern humans. P. R. Soc. London B 2007, 274:1125-1132.
7. Bayle P., Braga J., Mazurier A., Macchiarelli R. Dental developmental pattern of the Neandertal child from Roc de Marsal: a high resolution 3D analysis. J. Hum. Evol. 2009, 56:66-75.
8. Berkey C.S., Reed R.B. A model for describing normal and abnormal growth in early childhood. Hum. Biol. 1987, 59:973-987.
9. Bock R.D., du Toit S.H., Thissen D. AUXAL: Auxological Analysis of Longitudinal Measurements of Human Stature 1994, Scientific Software International, Chicago.
10. Bock R.D., Wainer H., Petersen A., Thissen D., Murray J., Roche A.F. A parameterization for individual human growth curves. Hum. Biol. 1973, 45:63-80.
11. Brooke O.G., Harris M., Salvosa C.B. The response of malnourished babies to cold. J. Physiol. 1973, 233:75-91.
12. Brothwell D. Adaptative growth rate changes as a possible explanation for the distinctiveness of the Neandertals. J. Archaeol. Sci. 1975, 2:161-163.
13. Cameron N., Molinari L. Methods in Human Growth Research 2004, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
14. Carretero J.M., Arsuaga J.L., Martínez I., Quam R., Lorenzo C., Gracia A., Ortega A.I. Los humanos de la Sima de los Huesos (Sierra de Atapuerca) y la evolución del cuerpo en el género Homo. Paleoantropología 2002, vol. III:120-134. Museo Arqueológico Regional, Madrid. E. Baquedano, S. Rubio Jara (Eds.).
15. Carretero J.-M., Rodríguez L., García-González R., Arsuaga J.-L., Gómez-Olivencia A., Lorenzo C., Bonmatí A., Gracia A., Martínez I., Quam R. Stature estimation from complete long bones in the Middle Pleistocene humans from the Sima de los Huesos, Sierra de Atapuerca (Spain). J. Hum. Evol. 2012, 62:242-255.
16. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Health Statistics CDC Growth Charts: United States May 30, 2000, http://www.cdc.gov/growthcharts/.
17. Churchill S.E. Cold adaptation, heterochrony and Neandertals. Evol. Anthropol. 1998, 7:46-61.
18. Count E.W. A quantitative analysis of growth in certain human skull dimensions. Hum. Biol. 1942, 14:143-165.
19. Count E.W. Growth patterns of the human physique: an approach to kinetic anthropometry. Hum. Biol. 1943, 15:1-43.
20. Cowgill L.W. The ontogeny of Holocene and Late Pleistocene human postcranial strength. Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 2010, 141:16-37.
21. Cowgill L.W., Trinkaus E., Zeder M.A. Shanidar 10: a Middle Paleolithic immature distal lower limb from Shanidar cave, Iraqi Kurdistan. J. Hum. Evol. 2007, 53:213-223.
22. Dean C. Retrieving chronological age from dental remains of early hominins to reconstruct human growth in the past. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B 2010, 365:3397-3410.
23. Dean C., Smith B.H. Growth and development of the Nariokotome youth, KNM-WT 15000. The First Humans. Origin and Early Evolution of the Genus Homo 2009, 102-121. Springer, Dordrecht. F.E. Grine, J.G. Fleagle, L.N. Leakey (Eds.).
24. Dean C., Stringer C.B., Bromage T.G. Age at death of the Neandertal child from Devil's Tower, Gibraltar and the implications for studies of general growth and development in Neandertals. Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 1986, 70:301-309.
25. Dodo Y., Kondo O., Muhesen S., Akazawa T. Anatomy of the Neandertal infant skeleton from Dederiyeh cave, Syria. Neandertals and Modern Humans in Western Asia 1998, 323-338. Plenum Press, New York. T. Akazawa, K. Aoki, O. Bar-Yosef (Eds.).
26. Dupertuis C.W., Hadden J.A. On the reconstruction of stature from long bones. Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 1951, 9:15-53.
27. Feldesman M.R. Femur/stature ratio and estimates of stature in children. Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 1992, 87:447-459.
28. Feldesman M.R., Lundy J.K. Stature estimates for some African Plio-Pleistocenene fossil hominids. J. Hum. Evol. 1988, 17:583-596.
29. Feldesman M.R., Kleckner J.G., Lundy J.K. Femur/stature ratio and estimates of stature in mid- and late-Pleistocene fossil hominids. Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 1990, 83:359-372.
30. Formicola V. More is not always better: Trotter and Gleser's equations and stature estimates of Upper Paleolithic European samples. J. Hum. Evol. 2003, 45:239-244.
31. Formicola V., Franceschi M. Regression equations for estimating stature from long bones of Early Holocene European samples. Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 1996, 100:83-88.
32. Frisancho A.R. Human Adaptation and Accommodation 1993, University of Michigan Press, Ann Harbor.
33. Fujii A. On the Relation of Long Bone Lengths of Limbs to Stature 1960, vol. 3. Bulletin of the School of Physical Education, Juntendo University, 49-61.
34. García J., Quintana-Domeque C. The evolution of adult height in Europe: a brief note. Econ. Hum. Biol. 2007, 5:340-349.
35. García-González R., Carretero J.M., Rodríguez L., Gómez-Olivencia A., Arsuaga J.L., Bermúdez de Castro J.M., Carbonell E., Martínez I., Lorenzo C. Analytical study of a complete subadult clavicle of Homo antecessor (Gran Dolina Site, Sierra de Atapuerca, Burgos, Spain). Anthropologie 2009, 113:222-232.
36. Garrod D.A.E., Buxton L.H.D., Smith G.E., Bate D.M.A. Excavation of a Mousterian rock-shelter at Devil's Tower. Gibraltar. J. R. Anthropol. Inst. G. 1928, 58:33-113.
37. Gasser T., Gervini D., Molinari L. Kernel estimation, shape-invariant modelling and structural analysis. Methods in Human Growth Research 2004, 179-204. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. R.C. Hauspie, N. Cameron, L. Molinari (Eds.).
38. Golovanova L.V., Hoffecker J.F., Kharitonov V.M., Romanova G.P. Mezmaiskaya cave: a Neandertal occupation in the Northern Caucasus. Curr. Anthropol. 1999, 40:77-86.
39. Granat J., Heim J.L. Nouvelle méthode d'estimation de l'âge dentaire des Néandertaliens. Anthropologie 2003, 107:171-202.
40. Graves R.R., Lupo A.C., McCarthy R.C., Wescott D.J., Cunningham D.L. Just how strapping was KNM-WT 15000?. J. Hum. Evol. 2010, 59:542-554.
41. Green R.E., Krause J., Briggs A.W., Maricic T., Stenzel U., Kircher M., Patterson N., Li H., Zhai W., Hsi-Yang Fritz M., Hansen N.F., Durand E.Y., Malaspinas A.S., Jensen J.D., Marques-Bonet T., Alkan C., Prüfer K., Meyer M., Burbano H.A., Good J.M., Schultz R., Aximu-Petri A., Butthof A., Höber H., Höffner B., Siegemund M., Weihmann A., Nusbaum C., Lander E.C., Russ C., Novod N., Affourtit J.A., Egholm M., Verna C., Rudan P., Brajkovic D., Kucan Z., Gušic I., Doronichev V.B., Golovanova L.V., Lalueza-Fox C., de la Rasilla M., Fortea J., Rosas A., Schmitz R.W., Johnson P.L.F., Eichler E.E., Falush D., Birney E., Mullikin J.C., Slatkin M., Nielsen R., Kelso J., Lachmann M., Reich D., Pääbo S. A draft sequence of the Neandertal genome. Science 2010, 328:710-722.
42. Guatelli-Steinberg D., Reid D., Bishop T.A., Larsen C.S. Anterior tooth growth periods in Neandertals were comparable to those of modern humans. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 2005, 102:14197-14202.
43. Guatelli-Steinberg D., Reid D., Bishop T.A. Did the lateral enamel of Neandertal anterior teeth grow differently from that of modern humans?. J. Hum. Evol. 2007, 52:72-84.
44. Guatelli-Steinberg D., Reid D., Bishop T.A., Larsen C.S. Not so fast: a reply to Ramirez Rozzy and Sardi. J. Hum. Evol. 2007, 53:114-118.
45. Gunz P., Neubauer S., Maureille B., Hublin J.-J. Brain development after birth differs between Neandertals and modern humans. Curr. Biol. 2010, 20:921-922.
46. Gunz P., Neubauer S., Golovanova L., Doronichev V., Maureille B., Hublin J.-J. A uniquely modern human pattern of endocranial development. Insights from a new cranial reconstruction of the Neandertal newborn from Mezmaiskaya. J. Hum. Evol. 2012, 62:300-313.
47. Methods in Human Growth Research 2004, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. R.C. Hauspie, N. Cameron, L. Molinari (Eds.).
48. Heim J.-L. Les enfants Néandertaliens de La Ferrassie. étude Anthropologique et Analyse Ontogénique des Hommes de Néandertal 1982, Masson, Paris.
49. Hens S.M., Konigsberg L.W., Jungers W.L. Estimation of African ape body length from femur length. J. Hum. Evol. 1998, 34:401-411.
50. Himes J.H., Yarbrough C., Martorell R. Estimation of stature in children from radiographically determined metacarpal length. J. Forensic Sci. 1977, 22:452-456.
51. Holliday T.W. Postcranial evidence of cold adaptation in. Eur. Neandertals. Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 1997, 104:245-258.
52. Humphrey L. Weaning behaviour in human evolution. Semin. Cell Dev. Biol. 2010, 21:453-461.
53. Jenss R.M., Bayley N. A mathematical method for studying the growth of a child. Hum. Biol. 1937, 9:556-563.
54. Jolicoeur P., Pontier J., Pernin M.-O., Sempé M. A lifetime asymptotic growth curve for human height. Biometrics 1988, 44:995-1003.
55. Jolicoeur P., Pontier J., Abidi H. Asymptotic models for the longitudinal growth of human stature. Am. J. Human Biol. 1992, 4:461-468.
56. Kondo O., Ishida H. Ontogenetic variation in the Dederiyeh Neandertal infants: postcranial evidence. Patterns of Growth and Development in the Genus Homo 2003, 386-411. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. J.L. Thompson, G.E. Krovitz, A.J. Nelson (Eds.).
57. Kondo O., Dodo Y., Akazawa T., Muhesen S. Estimation of stature from the skeletal reconstruction of an immature Neandertal from Dederiyeh cave, Syria. J. Hum. Evol. 2000, 38:457-473.
58. Kouchi M., Mukherjee D., Roche A.F. Curve fitting for growth in weight during infancy with relationships to adult status and familial associations of the estimated parameters. Hum. Biol. 1985, 57:245-263.
59. Kouchi M., Roche A.F., Mukherjee D. Growth in recumbent length during infancy with relationships to adult status and familial associations of the estimated parameters of fitted curves. Hum. Biol. 1985, 57:449-472.
60. Kuzawa C. Adipose tissue in human infancy and childhood: an evolutionary perspective. Yearb. Phys. Anthropol. 1998, 41:177-209.
61. Laird A.K. Evolution of the human growth curve. Growth 1967, 31:345-355.
62. Legoux P. Détermination de l'âge dentaire de l'enfant Néandertalien du Roc-Marsal. Revue Français d'Odontostomatologie 1965, 10:1-24.
63. Legoux P. étude odontologique de l'enfant Néandertalien du Pech-de-l'Azé. Arch. Inst. Paléontol. Humaine 1970, 33:53-87.
64. Leigh S.R. Evolution of human growth. Evol. Anthropol. 2001, 10:223-236.
65. Leigh S.R., Shea B.T. Ontogeny of body size variation in African apes. Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 1996, 99:43-65.
66. Leonard W.R., Katzmarzyk P.T., Comuzzie A.G., Crawford M.H., Sukernik R.I. Growth and nutritional status of the Evenki reindeer herders of Siberia. Am. J. Human Biol. 1994, 6:339-350.
67. Leonard W.R., Katzmarzyk P.T., Crawford M.H. Energetics and population ecology of Siberian herders. Am. J. Human Biol. 1996, 8:275-289.
68. Leonard W.R., Sorensen M.V., Galloway V.A., Spencer G.J., Mosher M.J., Osipova L., Spitsyn V.A. Climatic influences on basal metabolic rates among circumpolar populations. Am. J. Human Biol. 2002, 14:609-620.
69. Leonard W.R., Snodgrass J.J., Sorensen M.V. Metabolic adaptation in indigenous Siberian populations. A. Rev. Anthropol. 2005, 34:451-471.
70. Macchiarelli R., Bondioli L., Debénath A., Mazurier A., Tourpeniche J.-F., Birch W., Dean C. How Neandertal molar teeth grew. Nature 2006, 444:748-751.
71. Madre-Dupouy M. L'Enfant du Roc de Marsal. étude Analytique et Comparative 1992, CNRS éditions, Paris.
72. Martinez-Maza C., Rosas A., Garcia-Vargas S., Estalrrich A., de la Rasilla M. Bone remodelling in Neanderthal mandibles from the El Sidron site (Asturias, Spain) Biol. Lett 2011, 7:593-596.
73. Mateos A., Goikoetxea I., Martín J., Rodríguez J., Bermúdez de Castro J.M. Assessing maternal lactation costs, infant postnatal growth and weaning: new issues in human and non human primates reproductive strategies. Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 2010, 141:166.
74. Maureille B. A lost Neandertal neonate found. Nature 2002, 419:33-34.
75. Maureille B. The rediscovery of the Le Moustier 2 Neandertal specimen. The Neandertal Adolescent Le Moustier 1. New Aspects, New Results 2005, 63-72. Staatliche Museenzu Berlin - Preussischer Kulturbesitz, Berlin. H. Ullrich (Ed.).
76. McHenry H.M. How large were the australopithecines?. Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 1974, 40:329-340.
77. McHenry H.M. Femoral lengths and stature in Plio-Pleistocene hominids. Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 1991, 85:149-158.
78. McHenry H.M. How big were early hominids?. Evol. Anthropol. 1992, 1:15-20.
79. WHO Multicentre Growth Reference Study Group (MGRS) WHO Child Growth Standards based on length/height, weight and age. Acta Paediatr. Suppl. 2006, 450:76-85.
80. WHO Multicentre Growth Reference Study Group (MGRS) Length/Height-for-Age, Weight-for-Age, Weight-for-Length, Weight-for-Height and Body Mass Index-for-Age. Methods and Development 2006, World Health Organization, Geneva.
81. Milan F.A. The Human Biology of Circumpolar Populations 1980, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
82. Milligan, L., 2007. Nonhuman primate milk composition: relationship to phylogeny. Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Arizona.
83. Minugh-Purvis, N., 1988. Patterns of craniofacial growth and development in Upper Pleistocene hominids. Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Pennsylvania.
84. Ogilvie M., Curran B.K., Trinkaus E. Incidence and patterning of dental enamel hypoplasias among. Neandertals. Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 1989, 79:25-41.
85. Ohman J.C., Wood C., Wood B., Crompton R.H., Günther M.M., Yu L., Savage R., Wang W. Stature-at-death of KNM-WT 15000. Hum. Evol. 2002, 17:129-142.
86. Palkama A., Telkkä A., Virtama P. Estimation of the stature from radiographs of long bones in children. II. Children under one year of age. Ann. Med. Exp. Biol. Fenn. 1962, 40:219-222.
87. Pearson K. On the reconstruction of stature of prehistoric races. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. A 1899, 192:169-244.
88. Ponce de Leon M.S., Golovanova L.V., Doronichev V., Romanova G.P., Akazawa T., Kondo O., Ishida H., Zollikofer C.P.E. Neandertal brain size at birth provides insights into the evolution of human life history. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 2008, 105:13764-13768.
89. Ramirez Rozzi F., Bermúdez de Castro J.M. Surprisingly rapid growth in Neandertals. Nature 2004, 428:936-939.
90. Ramirez Rozzi F., Sardi M. Crown-formation time in Neandertal anterior teeth revisited. J. Hum. Evol. 2007, 53:108-113.
91. Rode A., Shephard R.J. Basal metabolic rate of Inuit. Am. J. Human Biol. 1995, 7:723-729.
92. Rosas A., Bastir M. Geometric morphometric analysis of allometric variation in the mandibular morphology from the hominids of Atapuerca, Sima de los Huesos site. Anat. Rec. A 2004, 278A:551-560.
93. Rosas A., Estalrrich A., García-Vargas S., García-Tabernero A., Bastir M., Huguet R., Peña-Melián A. Los fósiles Neandertales de la Cueva de El Sidrón. La Cueva de El Sidrón (Borines, Piloña, Asturias) Excavaciones Arqueológicas en Asturias. Principado de Asturias 2011, 81-116. Consejería de Cultura y Turismo. M. de la Rasilla, A. Rosas, J.C. Cañaveras, L.-F. C (Eds.).
94. Ruff C.B. Growth in bone strength, body size and muscle size in a juvenile longitudinal sample. Bone 2003, 33:317-329.
95. Ruff C.B. Body size and prediction from juvenile skeletal remains. Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 2007, 133:698-716.
96. Ruff C.B., Walker A., Trinkaus E. Postcranial robusticity in Homo. Ontogeny. Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 1994, 93:35-54.
97. Ruff C.B., Trinkaus E., Holliday E. Body mass and encephalization in Pleistocene Homo. Nature 1997, 387:173-176.
98. Sandgathe D.M., Dibble H.L., Goldberg P., McPherron S.P. The Roc de Marsal Neandertal child: a reassessment of its status as a deliberate burial. J. Hum. Evol. 2011, 61:243-253.
99. Sasaki C., Suzuki K., Takagi H., Kozawa Y., Dodo Y. Age determination with enamel cross striations of fossil man. Acta Anat. Nippon. Suppl. 1995, 70:171.
100. Scheuer L., Black S. Developmental Juvenile Osteology 2000, Academic Press, San Diego.
101. Shackelford L.L., Stinespring Harris A.E., Konigsberg L.W. Estimating the distribution of probable age-at-death from dental remains of immature human fossils. Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 2012, 147:227-253.
102. Shephard R.J., Rode A. The Health Consequences of 'Modernization'. Evidence from Circumpolar Peoples 1996, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
103. Shohoji T., Sasaki H. Individual growth of stature of Japanese. Growth 1987, 51:432-450.
104. Sinclair D., Dangerfield P. Human Growth After Birth 2005, Oxford University Press, London, New York.
105. Sjøvold T. Estimation of stature from long bones utilizing the line of organic correlation. Hum. Evol. 1990, 5:431-447.
106. Skinner M. Developmental stress in immature hominines from Late Pleistocene Eurasia: evidence from enamel hypoplasia. J. Archaeol. Sci. 1996, 23:833-852.
107. Smith T.M., Toussaint M., Reid D.J., Olejniczak A.J., Hublin J.-J. Rapid dental development in a Middle Paleolithic Belgian Neandertal. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 2007, 104:20220-20225.
108. Smith T.M., Tafforeau P., Reid R.J., Pouech J., Lazzari V., Zermenoa J.P., Guatelli-Steinberg D., Olejniczak A.J., Hoffmang A., Radovcićh J., Makaremii M., Toussaint M., Stringer C., Hublin J.-J. Dental evidence for ontogenetic differences between modern humans and. Neandertals. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 2010, 107:20923-20928.
109. Snodgrass J.J., Leonard W.R. Neandertal energetics revisited: insights into population dynamics and life history evolution. Paleoanthropology 2009, 2009:220-237.
110. Snodgrass J.J., Leonard W.R., Tarskaia L.A., Alekseev V.P., Krivoshapkin V.G. Basal metabolic rate in the Yakut (Sakha) of Siberia. Am. J. Human Biol. 2005, 17:155-172.
111. Sorensen M.V., Leonard W.R. Neandertal energetics and foraging efficiency. J. Hum. Evol. 2001, 40:483-495.
112. Stinerspring A.E., Guatelli-Steinberg D., Reid D.J., Larsen C.S., Hutchinson D., Smith T.M. A method to estimate the timing of linear enamel hypoplasia for Neandertals. Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 2012, 147:278.
113. Stringer C.B., Dean C., Martin R.D. A comparative study of cranial and dental development within a recent British sample and among Neandertals. Primate Life History and Evolution 1990, 115-152. Wiley Liss, New York. C.J. DeRousseau (Ed.).
114. Sumiya T., Tashima T., Nakahara H., Shohoji T. Relationships between Biological Parameters of Japanese Growth of Height. Conference on Environmetrics, December 07-11, 1998 2001, vol. 12. Victoria Fall, Zimbabwe, pp. 367-382.
115. Telkkä A. On the prediction of human stature from long bones. Acta Anat. 1950, 9:103-117.
116. Telkkä A., Palkama A., Virtama P. Estimation of the stature from radiographs of long bones in children. I. Children aged from one to nine. Ann. Med. Exp. Biol. Fenn. 1962, 40:91-96.
117. Thompson J.L., Nelson A.J. The place of the Neandertals in the evolution of hominid patterns of growth and development. J. Hum. Evol. 2000, 38:475-495.
118. Tompkins R.L., Trinkaus E. La Ferrassie 6 and the development of Neandertal pubic morphology. Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 1987, 73:233-239.
119. Trinkaus E. Neandertal limb proportions and cold adaptation. Aspects of Human Evolution 1981, 187-224. Taylor and Francis, London. C.B. Stringer (Ed.).
120. Trinkaus E. The Neandertals and modern human origins. A. Rev. Anthropol. 1986, 15:193-218.
121. Trinkaus E., Ruff C.B. Cross-sectional geometry of Neandertal femoral and tibial diaphyses: implications for locomotion. Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 1989, 78:315-316.
122. Trinkaus E., Tompkins R.L. The Neandertal life cycle: the possibility, probability, and perceptibility of contrast with recent humans. Primate Life History and Evolution 1990, 153-180. Wiley-Liss, New York. C.J. DeRousseau (Ed.).
123. Trinkaus E., Churchill S.E., Villemeur I., Riley K.G., Heller J.A., Ruff C.B. Robusticity versus shape: the functional interpretation of Neandertal appendicular morphology. Anthropol. Sci. 1991, 99:257-278.
124. Trotter M., Gleser G. Estimation of stature from long bones of American Whites and Negroes. Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 1952, 10:469-514.
125. Trotter M., Gleser G. A re-evaluation of estimation based on measurements of stature taken during life and of long bones after death. Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 1958, 16:79-123.
126. Virtama P., Kiviluoto R., Palkama A., Telkkä A. Estimation of stature from radiographs of long bones in children. III. Children aged from ten to fifteen. Ann. Med. Exp. Biol. Fenn. 1962, 40:283-285.
127. Vlček E. Postcranial skeleton of a Neandertal child from Kiik-Koba, U.S.S.R. J. Hum. Evol. 1973, 2:537-544.
128. Walker R., Hill K., Burger O., Hurtado A.M. Life in the slow lane revisited: ontogenetic separation between chimpanzees and humans. Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 2006, 129:577-583.
129. Walker M.J., Ortega J., Parmova K., López M.V., Trinkaus E. Morphology, body proportions, and postcranial hypertrophy of a female Neandertal from the Sima de las Palomas, southeastern Spain. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 2011, 108:10087-10091.
130. Weaver T.D., Steudel-Numbers K.L. Does climate or mobility explain the differences in body proportions between Neandertals and their Upper Paleolithic successors?. Evol. Anthropol. 2005, 14:218-223.
131. Wolpoff M.H. The Krapina dental remains. Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 1979, 50:67-114.
132. Zollikofer C.P.E., Ponce de Leon M.S. The evolution of hominin ontogenies. Semin. Cell Dev. Biol. 2010, 21:441-452.