Management of pregnancy in women with type 1 diabetes mellitus: Guidelines of the French-Speaking Diabetes Society (Société francophone du diabète [SFD])

Diabetes and Metabolism

Volumn 38, Issue 3, 2012, Pages 205-216

  Bismuth, E ^a   Bouche, C ^b   Caliman, C ^c   Lepercq, J ^d,e   Lubin, V ^f,g   Rouge, D ^h   Timsit, J ^e,i   Vambergue, A ^j  

^a HÔPITAL ROBERT DEBRÉ   (France)

^b SAINT LOUIS HOSPITAL   (France)

^c ERASME HOSPITAL   (Belgium)

^d HÔPITAL SAINT VINCENT DE PAUL   (France)

^e UNIVERSITÉ PARIS DESCARTES   (France)

^f Claude Huriez Hospital ^*  (France)

^g Maternite de L'Etoile   (France)

^h Paul Sabatier University   (France)

ⁱ NONE   (France)

^j LILLE UNIVERSITY HOSPITAL   (France)

more..

Author keywords

Guidelines; Pregnancy; Review; Type 1 diabetes

Indexed keywords

ACETYLSALICYLIC ACID; ANGIOTENSIN RECEPTOR ANTAGONIST; BETA ADRENERGIC RECEPTOR BLOCKING AGENT; CALCIUM; DIPEPTIDYL CARBOXYPEPTIDASE INHIBITOR; FOLIC ACID; FUROSEMIDE; GLUCAGON; GLUCOSE; INSULIN; INSULIN ASPART; INSULIN DETEMIR; INSULIN GLARGINE; INSULIN LISPRO; ISOPHANE INSULIN; LABETALOL; NIFEDIPINE; SPIRONOLACTONE; VERAPAMIL;

ARTICLE; BLOOD GLUCOSE MONITORING; CESAREAN SECTION; DIABETIC KETOACIDOSIS; DIABETIC MICROANGIOPATHY; DIABETIC NEPHROPATHY; DIABETIC RETINOPATHY; DIET THERAPY; DRUG EFFICACY; DRUG MEGADOSE; DRUG RECEPTOR BINDING; DRUG SAFETY; FETUS DEATH; FETUS ECHOGRAPHY; FETUS MALFORMATION; FOLLOW UP; GLYCEMIC CONTROL; HEALTH CARE PLANNING; HUMAN; HYPEREMESIS GRAVIDARUM; HYPERGLYCEMIA; HYPERINSULINISM; HYPOCALCEMIA; HYPOGLYCEMIA; HYPOKALEMIA; HYPONATREMIA; INFECTION; INSULIN BLOOD LEVEL; INSULIN DEPENDENT DIABETES MELLITUS; INSULIN PUMP; INSULIN TREATMENT; INTRAUTERINE GROWTH RETARDATION; LOW DRUG DOSE; MACROSOMIA; MATERNAL HYPERTENSION; MEDICAL SOCIETY; NEWBORN DISEASE; OBESITY; PLACENTA DISORDER; PLACENTAL HYPOPERFUSION; PRACTICE GUIDELINE; PREECLAMPSIA; PREGNANCY DIABETES MELLITUS; PREMATURITY; PREPREGNANCY CARE; SPONTANEOUS ABORTION; STOMACH PARESIS; URINARY TRACT INFECTION;

EID: 84863426750     PISSN: 12623636     EISSN: 18781780     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.diabet.2012.02.010     Document Type: Article

References (105)

1. Diabetes care and research in Europe: the Saint Vincent declaration. Diabet Med 1990; 7:360.
2. Jovanovic L., Knopp R.H., Brown Z., Conley M.R., Park E., Mills J.L., et al. Declining insulin requirement in the late first trimester of diabetic pregnancy. Diabetes Care 2001, 24:1130-1136.
3. Taylor R., Davison J.M. Type 1 diabetes and pregnancy. BMJ 2007, 334:742-745.
4. Garcia-Patterson A., Gich I., Amini S.B., Catalano P.M., de Leiva A., Corcoy R. Insulin requirements throughout pregnancy in women with type 1 diabetes mellitus: three changes of direction. Diabetologia 2010, 53:446-451.
5. Nielsen L.R., Pedersen-Bjergaard U., Thorsteinsson B., Johansen M., Damm P., Mathiesen E.R. Hypoglycemia in pregnant women with type-1 diabetes: predictors and role of metabolic control. Diabetes Care 2008, 31:9-14.
6. Temple R.C., Aldridge V.J., Murphy H.R. Prepregnancy care and pregnancy outcomes in women with type-1 diabetes. Diabetes Care 2006, 29:1744-1749.
7. Crowley T. The confidential enquiries into maternal deaths in the United Kingdom 2001, RCOG Press, London.
8. Effect of pregnancy on microvascular complications in the diabetes control and complications trial. Diabetes Care 2000, 23:1084-1091. The Diabetes Control, Complications Trial Research Group.
9. ter Braak E.W., Evers I.M., Willem Erkelens D., Visser G.H. Maternal hypoglycemia during pregnancy in type-1 diabetes: maternal and fetal consequences. Diabetes Metab Res Rev 2002, 18:96-105.
10. Mills J.L., Jovanovic L., Knopp R., Aarons J., Conley M., Park E., et al. Physiological reduction in fasting plasma glucose concentration in the first trimester of normal pregnancy: the diabetes in early pregnancy study. Metabolism 1998, 47:1140-1144.
11. Parretti E., Mecacci F., Papini M., Cioni R., Carignani L., Mignosa M., et al. Third-trimester maternal glucose levels from diurnal profiles in non-diabetic pregnancies: correlation with sonographic parameters of fetal growth. Diabetes Care 2001, 24:1319-1323.
12. Rosenn B.M., Miodovnik M., Khoury J.C., Siddiqi T.A. Counterregulatory hormonal responses to hypoglycemia during pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol 1996, 87:568-574.
13. Chauhan S.P., Perry K.G., McLaughlin B.N., Roberts W.E., Sullivan C.A., Morrison J.C. Diabetic ketoacidosis complicating pregnancy. J Perinatol 1996, 16:173-175.
14. Cullen M.T., Reece E.A., Homko C.J., Sivan E. The changing presentations of diabetic ketoacidosis during pregnancy. Am J Perinatol 1996, 13:449-451.
15. Ramin K.D. Diabetic ketoacidosis in pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol Clin North Am 1999, 26:481-488.
16. Kamalakannan D., Baskar V., Barton D.M., Abdu T.A. Diabetic ketoacidosis in pregnancy. Postgrad Med J 2003, 79:454-457.
17. Report of the National High Blood Pressure Education Program Working Goroup on High Blood Pressure in Pregnancy. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2000;183:S-S22.
18. Sibai B.M., Caritis S., Hauth J., Lindheimer M., VanDorsten J.P., MacPherson C., et al. Risks of preeclampsia and adverse neonatal outcomes among women with pregestational diabetes mellitus. National institute of child health and human development network of maternal-fetal medicine units. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2000, 182:364-369.
19. Evers I.M., de Valk H.W., Visser G.H. Risk of complications of pregnancy in women with type 1 diabetes: nationwide prospective study in the Netherlands. BMJ 2004, 328:915.
20. Gordon M., Landon M.B., Samuels P., Hissrich S., Gabbe S.G. Perinatal outcome and long-term follow-up associated with modern management of diabetic nephropathy. Obstet Gynecol 1996, 87:401-409.
21. Sibai B.M., Caritis S.N., Hauth J.C., MacPherson C., VanDorsten J.P., Klebanoff M., et al. Preterm delivery in women with pregestational diabetes mellitus or chronic hypertension relative to women with uncomplicated pregnancies. The National institute of child health and human development maternal- fetal medicine units network. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2000, 183:1520-1524.
22. Ekbom P., Damm P., Feldt-Rasmussen B., Feldt-Rasmussen U., Molvig J., Mathiesen E.R. Pregnancy outcome in type 1 diabetic women with microalbuminuria. Diabetes Care. 2001, 24:1739-1744.
23. Lepercq J., Coste J., Theau A., Dubois-Laforgue D., Timsit J. Factors associated with preterm delivery in women with type-1 diabetes: a cohort study. Diabetes Care. 2004, 27:2824-2828.
24. Carr D.B., Koontz G.L., Gardella C., Holing E.V., Brateng D.A., Brown Z.A., et al. Diabetic nephropathy in pregnancy: suboptimal hypertensive control associated with preterm delivery. Am J Hypertens 2006, 19:513-519.
25. McNair R.D., MacDonald S.R., Dooley S.L., Peterson L.R. Evaluation of the centrifuged and Gram-stained smear, urinalysis, and reagent strip testing to detect asymptomatic bacteriuria in obstetric patients. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2000, 182:1076-1079.
26. Takoudes T.C., Weitzen S., Slocum J., Malee M. Risk of cesarean wound complications in diabetic gestations. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2004, 191:958-963.
27. Mills J.L., Simpson J.L., Driscoll S.G., Jovanovic-Peterson L., Van Allen M., Aarons J.H., et al. Incidence of spontaneous abortion among normal women and insulin-dependent diabetic women whose pregnancies were identified within 21 days of conception. N Engl J Med 1988, 319:1617-1623.
28. Guerin A., Nisenbaum R., Ray J.G. Use of maternal GHb concentration to estimate the risk of congenital anomalies in the offspring of women with prepregnancy diabetes. Diabetes Care 2007, 30:1920-1925.
29. Schwartz R., Teramo K.A. Effects of diabetic pregnancy on the fetus and newborn. Semin Perinatol 2000, 24:120-135.
30. Salvesen D.R., Freeman J., Brudenell J.M., Nicolaides K.H. Prediction of fetal acidaemia in pregnancies complicated by maternal diabetes mellitus by biophysical profile scoring and fetal heart rate monitoring. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1993, 100:227-233.
31. Diabetes and Pregnancy Group Knowledge about preconception care in French women with type 1 diabetes. Diabetes Metab 2005, 31:443-447.
32. Ray J.G., O'Brien T.E., Chan W.S. Preconception care and the risk of congenital anomalies in the offspring of women with diabetes mellitus: a meta-analysis. QJM 2001, 94:435-444.
33. Oyama K., Sugimura Y., Murase T., Uchida A., Hayasaka S., Oiso Y., et al. Folic acid prevents congenital malformations in the offspring of diabetic mice. Endocr J 2009, 56:29-37.
34. Jia D.Y., Liu H.J., Wang F.W., Liu S.M., Ling E.A., Liu K., et al. Folic acid supplementation affects apoptosis and differentiation of embryonic neural stem cells exposed to high glucose. Neurosci Lett 2008, 440:27-31.
35. http://www.has-sante.fr/portail/upload/docs/application/pdf/ct031338.pdf.
36. http://www.lecrat.org/.
37. Laube G.F., Kemper M.J., Schubiger G., Neuhaus T.J. Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor fetopathy: long-term outcome. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed 2007, 92:F402-F403.
38. Diav-Citrin O., Shechtman S., Halberstadt Y., Finkel-Pekarsky V., Wajnberg R., Arnon J., et al. Pregnancy outcome after in utero exposure to angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors or angiotensin receptor blockers. Reprod Toxicol 2011, 31:540-545.
39. Li D.K., Yang C., Andrade S., Tavares V., Ferber J.R. Maternal exposure to angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors in the first trimester and risk of malformations in offspring: a retrospective cohort study. BMJ 2011, 343:d5931.
40. Tabacova S., Kimmel C.A., Wall K., Hansen D. Atenolol developmental toxicity: animal-to-human comparisons. Birth Defects Res A Clin Mol Teratol. 2003, 67:181-192.
41. Petersen E.E., Mitchell A.A., Carey J.C., Werler M.M., Louik C., Rasmussen S.A. Maternal exposure to statins and risk for birth defects: a case-series approach. Am J Med Genet A 2008, 146A:2701-2705.
42. Frias J.L., Gilbert-Barness E. Human teratogens: current controversies. Adv Pediatr 2008, 55:171-211.
43. Thorogood M., Seed M., De Mott K. Management of fertility in women with familial hypercholesterolaemia: summary of NICE guidance. BJOG 2009, 116:478-479.
44. Ujhazy E., Onderova E., Horakova M., Bencova E., Durisova M., Nosal R., et al. Teratological study of the hypolipidaemic drugs etofylline clofibrate (VULM) and fenofibrate in Swiss mice. Pharmacol Toxicol 1989, 64:286-290.
45. http://www.cngof.asso.fr/D_TELE/RPC_preeclampsie_fr_BM2.pdf.
46. Caritis S., Sibai B., Hauth J., Lindheimer M.D., Klebanoff M., Thom E., et al. Low-dose aspirin to prevent preeclampsia in women at high risk. National institute of child health and human development network of maternal-fetal medicine units. N Engl J Med 1998, 338:701-705.
47. Jonasson J.M., Brismar K., Sparen P., Lambe M., Nyren O., Ostenson C.G., et al. Fertility in women with type 1 diabetes: a population-based cohort study in Sweden. Diabetes Care 2007, 30:2271-2276.
48. Coustan S.G.G. Diabetes in women adolescence, pregnancy and menopause. 3 ed. 2004, Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia.
49. Kitzmiller J.L., Block J.M., Brown F.M., Catalano P.M., Conway D.L., Coustan D.R., et al. Managing preexisting diabetes for pregnancy: summary of evidence and consensus recommendations for care. Diabetes Care 2008, 31:1060-1079.
50. http://www.mangerbouger.fr/pro/IMG/pdf/guide_nutrition_grossesse.pdf.
51. http://www.inpes.sante.fr/CFESBases/catalogue/pdf/1060.pdf.
52. Rasmussen K.M., Catalano P.M., Yaktine A.L. New guidelines for weight gain during pregnancy: what obstetrician/gynecologists should know. Curr Opin Obstet Gynecol 2009, 21:521-526.
53. CERIN. L'alimentation des femmes enceintes : recommandations et conseils pratiques. Paris cedex 09, 2007.
54. Lansac J.G.M. Obstétrique. 5 ed. 2008, Masson, Paris.
55. Bantle J.P., Wylie-Rosett J., Albright A.L., Apovian C.M., Clark N.G., Franz M.J., et al. Nutrition recommendations and interventions for diabetes: a position statement of the American Diabetes Association. Diabetes Care 2008, 31(Suppl. 1):S61-S78.
56. Hod M., Di Renzo J.L., De Leiva G.C., Langer A.O Textbook of diabetes and pregnancy. 2nd ed 2008, Informa Healthcare, London.
57. http://www.alfediam.org/magazine/alfediam%2Dnutrition%2Ddiabete.htm.
58. http://www.afssa.fr/index.htm.
59. Nielsen L.R., Ekbom P., Damm P., Glumer C., Frandsen M.M., Jensen D.M., et al. HbA1c levels are significantly lower in early and late pregnancy. Diabetes Care 2004, 27:1200-1201.
60. Hernandez T.L., Friedman J.E., Van Pelt R.E., Barbour L.A. Patterns of glycemia in normal pregnancy: should the current therapeutic targets be challenged?. Diabetes Care 2011, 34:1660-1668.
61. Heller S., Damm P., Mersebach H., Skjoth T.V., Kaaja R., Hod M., et al. Hypoglycemia in type 1 diabetic pregnancy: role of preconception insulin aspart treatment in a randomized study. Diabetes Care 2010, 33:473-477.
62. Wang F., Carabino J.M., Vergara C.M. Insulin glargine: a systematic review of a long-acting insulin analogue. Clin Ther 2003, 25:1541-1577.
63. Jovanovic L., Ilic S., Pettitt D.J., Hugo K., Gutierrez M., Bowsher R.R., et al. Metabolic and immunologic effects of insulin lispro in gestational diabetes. Diabetes Care 1999, 22:1422-1427.
64. Buelke-Sam J. A Reproductive and Developmental Toxicity Study in CD Rats of LY275585, [Lys(B28), Pro(B29)]-Human Insulin. Int J Toxicol 1994, 13:247-260.
65. Wyatt J.W., Frias J.L., Hoyme H.E., Jovanovic L., Kaaja R., Brown F., et al. Congenital anomaly rate in offspring of mothers with diabetes treated with insulin lispro during pregnancy. Diabet Med 2005, 22:803-807.
66. Masson E.A., Patmore J.E., Brash P.D., Baxter M., Caldwell G., Gallen I.W., et al. Pregnancy outcome in type 1 diabetes mellitus treated with insulin lispro (Humalog). Diabet Med 2003, 20:46-50.
67. Mathiesen E.R. Insulin aspart in diabetic pregnancy: state of the art. Womens Health (Lond Engl) 2008, 4:119-124.
68. Kanat M., Tahtaci M. Possible fetal outcome of insulin aspart. J Endocrinol Invest 2008, 31:841.
69. Kurtzhals P., Schaffer L., Sorensen A., Kristensen C., Jonassen I., Schmid C., et al. Correlations of receptor binding and metabolic and mitogenic potencies of insulin analogs designed for clinical use. Diabetes 2000, 49:999-1005.
70. Hofmann T., Horstmann G., Stammberger I. Evaluation of the reproductive toxicity and embryotoxicity of insulin glargine (LANTUS) in rats and rabbits. Int J Toxicol 2002, 21:181-189.
71. Egerman R.S., Ramsey R.D., Kao L.W., Bringman J.J., Haerian H., Kao J.L., et al. Perinatal outcomes in pregnancies managed with antenatal insulin glargine. Am J Perinatol 2009, 26:591-595.
72. Lepercq J., Jacqueminet S., Hieronimus S., Timsit J., Grimaldi A. Use of insulin glargine throughout pregnancy in 102 women with type 1 diabetes. Diabetes Metab 2010, 36:209-212.
73. http://novonordisk-trials.com/website/pdf/registry/bin_20110719-125049-763.pdf.
74. Pollex E.K., Feig D.S., Lubetsky A., Yip P.M., Koren G. Insulin glargine safety in pregnancy: a transplacental transfer study. Diabetes Care 2010, 33:29-33.
75. DeVries J.H. Continuous glucose monitoring: coming of age?. Eur J Endocrinol 2012, 166:1-4.
76. Axer-Siegel R., Hod M., Fink-Cohen S., Kramer M., Weinberger D., Schindel B., et al. Diabetic retinopathy during pregnancy. Ophthalmology 1996, 103:1815-1819.
77. Chew E.Y., Mills J.L., Metzger B.E., Remaley N.A., Jovanovic-Peterson L., Knopp R.H., et al. Metabolic control and progression of retinopathy. The Diabetes in Early Pregnancy Study. National institute of child health and human development diabetes in early pregnancy study. Diabetes Care 1995, 18:631-637.
78. Chaturvedi N., Stephenson J.M., Fuller J.H. The relationship between pregnancy and long-term maternal complications in the EURODIAB IDDM Complications Study. Diabet Med 1995, 12:494-499.
79. Rossing K., Jacobsen P., Hommel E., Mathiesen E., Svenningsen A., Rossing P., et al. Pregnancy and progression of diabetic nephropathy. Diabetologia 2002, 45:36-41.
80. Purdy L.P., Hantsch C.E., Molitch M.E., Metzger B.E., Phelps R.L., Dooley S.L., et al. Effect of pregnancy on renal function in patients with moderate-to-severe diabetic renal insufficiency. Diabetes Care 1996, 19:1067-1074.
81. Kimmerle R., Zass R.P., Cupisti S., Somville T., Bender R., Pawlowski B., et al. Pregnancies in women with diabetic nephropathy: long-term outcome for mother and child. Diabetologia 1995, 38:227-235.
82. Nielsen L.R., Damm P., Mathiesen E.R. Improved pregnancy outcome in type 1 diabetic women with microalbuminuria or diabetic nephropathy: effect of intensified antihypertensive therapy?. Diabetes Care 2009, 32:38-44.
83. Carr K.J., Idama T.O., Masson E.A., Ellis K., Lindow S.W. A randomised controlled trial of insulin lispro given before or after meals in pregnant women with type 1 diabetes - the effect on glycaemic excursion. J Obstet Gynaecol 2004, 24:382-386.
84. Bartha J.L., Wood J., Kyle P.M., Soothill P.W. The effect of metabolic control on fetal nuchal translucency in women with insulin-dependent diabetes: a preliminary study. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol 2003, 21:451-454.
85. Wong S.F., Chan F.Y., Cincotta R.B., Oats J.J., McIntyre H.D. Routine ultrasound screening in diabetic pregnancies. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol 2002, 19:171-176.
86. Grandjean H., Larroque D., Levi S. The performance of routine ultrasonographic screening of pregnancies in the Eurofetus Study. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1999, 181:446-454.
87. Carvalho J.S., Mavrides E., Shinebourne E.A., Campbell S., Thilaganathan B. Improving the effectiveness of routine prenatal screening for major congenital heart defects. Heart 2002, 88:387-391.
88. Crowley P.A. Antenatal corticosteroid therapy: a meta-analysis of the randomized trials, 1972 to 1994. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1995, 173:322-335.
89. Mathiesen E.R., Christensen A.B., Hellmuth E., Hornnes P., Stage E., Damm P. Insulin dose during glucocorticoid treatment for fetal lung maturation in diabetic pregnancy: test of an algorithm [correction of analgoritm?]. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 2002, 81:835-839.
90. Barrett J.M., Salyer S.L., Boehm F.H. The nonstress test: an evaluation of 1,000 patients. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1981, 141:153-157.
91. Kjos S.L., Leung A., Henry O.A., Victor M.R., Paul R.H., Medearis A.L. Antepartum surveillance in diabetic pregnancies: predictors of fetal distress in labor. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1995, 173:1532-1539.
92. Lauenborg J., Mathiesen E., Ovesen P., Westergaard J.G., Ekbom P., Molsted-Pedersen L., et al. Audit on stillbirths in women with pregestational type 1 diabetes. Diabetes Care 2003, 26:1385-1389.
93. Lepercq J., Abbou H., Agostini C., Toubas F., Francoual C., Velho G., et al. A standardized protocol to achieve normoglycaemia during labour and delivery in women with type 1 diabetes. Diabetes Metab 2008, 34:33-37.
94. Taylor R., Lee C., Kyne-Grzebalski D., Marshall S.M., Davison J.M. Clinical outcomes of pregnancy in women with type 1 diabetes. Obstet Gynecol 2002, 99:537-541.
95. Rouse D.J., Owen J., Goldenberg R.L., Cliver S.P. The effectiveness and costs of elective cesarean delivery for fetal macrosomia diagnosed by ultrasound. JAMA 1996, 276:1480-1486.
96. Dildy G.A., Clark S.L. Shoulder dystocia: risk identification. Clin Obstet Gynecol 2000, 43:265-282.
97. Hope P., Breslin S., Lamont L., Lucas A., Martin D., Moore I., et al. Fatal shoulder dystocia: a review of 56 cases reported to the Confidential Enquiry into Stillbirths and Deaths in Infancy. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1998, 105:1256-1261.
98. Gilbert W.M., Nesbitt T.S., Danielsen B. Associated factors in 1611 cases of brachial plexus injury. Obstet Gynecol 1999, 93:536-540.
99. Michelow B.J., Clarke H.M., Curtis C.G., Zuker R.M., Seifu Y., Andrews D.F. The natural history of obstetrical brachial plexus palsy. Plast Reconstr Surg 1994, 93:675-680.
100. Eng G.D., Binder H., Getson P., O'Donnell R. Obstetrical brachial plexus palsy (OBPP) outcome with conservative management. Muscle Nerve 1996, 19:884-891.
101. Johnstone F.D., Prescott R.J., Steel J.M., Mao J.H., Chambers S., Muir N. Clinical and ultrasound prediction of macrosomia in diabetic pregnancy. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1996, 103:747-754.
102. Kitzmiller J.L., Mall J.C., Gin G.D., Hendricks S.K., Newman R.B., Scheerer L. Measurement of fetal shoulder width with computed tomography in diabetic women. Obstet Gynecol 1987, 70:941-945.
103. Kastler B., Gangi A., Mathelin C., Germain P., Arhan J.M., Treisser A., et al. Fetal shoulder measurements with MRI. J Comput Assist Tomogr 1993, 17:777-780.
104. Lee W., Comstock C.H., Kirk J.S., Smith R.S., Monck J.W., Deenadayalu R., et al. Birthweight prediction by three-dimensional ultrasonographic volumes of the fetal thigh and abdomen. J Ultrasound Med 1997, 16:799-805.
105. Pedersen J.F., Molsted-Pedersen L. Sonographic estimation of fetal weight in diabetic pregnancy. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1992, 99:475-478.