Assessing wave energy effects on biodiversity: The Wave Hub experience

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences

Volumn 370, Issue 1959, 2012, Pages 502-529

  Witt, M J ^a   Sheehan, E V ^b   Bearhop, S ^a   Broderick, A C ^a   Conley, D C ^b   Cotterell, S P ^b,c   Crow, E ^d   Grecian, W J ^b   Halsband, C ^d   Hodgson, D J ^a   Hosegood, P ^b   Inger, R ^a   Miller, P I ^d   Sims, D W ^b,c   Thompson, R C ^b   Vanstaen, K ^e   Votier, S C ^b   Attrill, M J ^b   Godley, B J ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF EXETER   (United Kingdom)

^b UNIVERSITY OF PLYMOUTH   (United Kingdom)

^c THE LABORATORY   (United Kingdom)

^d PLYMOUTH MARINE LABORATORY   (United Kingdom)

^e CENTRE FOR ENVIRONMENT   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Benthos; Environmental impacts; Fish; Marine birds; Marine mammals; Wave energy

Indexed keywords

BIODIVERSITY; ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT; FISH; MAMMALS; TIDAL POWER; WAVE POWER;

BENTHOS; COASTAL SEAS; ENERGY MIX; ENERGY PRODUCTIONS; ENGLAND; INTERNATIONAL RESEARCHES; LARGE PARTS; MARINE BIRDS; MARINE MAMMALS; MARINE RENEWABLE ENERGY; META-ANALYSIS; METHODOLOGICAL APPROACH; POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE EFFECT; POTENTIAL IMPACTS; TEST SITE; TIDAL GENERATION; WAVE ENERGY; WAVE ENERGY CONVERTERS; WAVE ENERGY TECHNOLOGY;

WAVE ENERGY CONVERSION;

ANIMAL; BIODIVERSITY; MARINE BIOLOGY; REVIEW; UNITED KINGDOM;

ANIMALS; BIODIVERSITY; GREAT BRITAIN; MARINE BIOLOGY;

EID: 84863393055     PISSN: 1364503X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1098/rsta.2011.0265     Document Type: Conference Paper

References (120)

1. Fabry, V. J., Seibel, B. A., Feely, R. A. & Orr, J. C. 2008 Impacts of ocean acidification on marine fauna and ecosystem processes. ICES J. Mar. Sci. 65, 414-432. (doi:10.1093/icesjms/fsn048) (Pubitemid 351774758)
2. Royal Society 2005 Ocean acidification due to increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide. London, UK: Royal Society. See http://royalsociety.org/policy/ publications/2005/ocean-acidification/.
3. Richardson, A. J. 2008 In hot water: Zooplankton and climate change. ICES J. Mar. Sci. 65, 279-295. (doi:10.1093/icesjms/fsn028) (Pubitemid 351774753)
4. Lehodey, P. et al. 2006 Climate variability, fish, and fisheries. J. Climate 19, 5009-5030. (doi:10.1175/JCLI3898.1) (Pubitemid 44712433)
5. Frederiksen, M., Harris, M. P., Daunt, F., Rothery, P. & Wanless, S. 2004 Scale-dependent climate signals drive breeding phenology of three seabird species. Glob. Change Biol. 10, 1214-1221. (doi:10.1111/j.1529-8817.2003.00794. x) (Pubitemid 38964513)
6. Newson, S. E. et al. 2009 Indicators of the impact of climate change on migratory species. Endangered Species Res. 7, 101-113. (doi:10.3354/esr00162)
7. Robinson, R. A. et al. 2009 Travelling through a warming world: Climate change and migratory species. Endangered Species Res. 7, 87-99. (doi:10.3354/esr00095)
8. Herbert, G. M. J., Iniyan, S., Sreevalsan, E. & Rajapandian, S. 2007 A review of wind energy technologies. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 11, 1117-1145. (doi:10.1016/j.rser.2005.08.004) (Pubitemid 44827847)
9. Taylor, D. 2004 Wind energy. In Renewable energy: Power for a sustainable future (ed. G. Boyle), pp. 244-293. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
10. Michel, J., Dunagan, H., Boring, C., Healy, E., Evans, W., Dean, J. M., McGillis, A. & Hain, J. 2007 Worldwide synthesis and analysis of existing information regarding environmental effects of alternative energy uses on the outer continental shelf. Minerals Management Service, OCS Report MMS 2007-038. Herndon, VA: US Department of the Interior, Minerals Management Service. See http://www.boemre.gov/itd/pubs/2007/2007-038.pdf.
11. Ferro, B. D. 2006 Wave and tidal energy: Its emergence and the challenges it faces. Refocus 7, 46-48. (doi:10.1016/S1471-0846(06)70574-1) (Pubitemid 43817725)
12. Cada, G., Ahlgrimm, J., Bahleda, M., Bigford, T., Stavrakas, S. D., Hall, D., Moursund, R. & Sale, M. 2007 Potential impacts of hydrokinetic and wave energy conversion technologies on aquatic environments. Fisheries 32, 174-181. (doi:10.1577/1548-8446(2007)32[174:PIOHAW] 2.0.CO;2) (Pubitemid 46932759)
13. Boehlert, G. W., McMurray, G. R. & Tortorici, C. E. (eds) 2008 Ecological effects of wave energy development in the Pacific northwest. US Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration & National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS-F/SPO-92. Washington, DC: US Department of Commerce. See http://spo.nwr.noaa.gov/tm/ Wave%20Energy%20NOAATM92%20for%20web.pdf.
14. Nelson, P. A. et al. 2008 Developing wave energy in coastal California: Potential socioeconomic and environmental effects. California Energy Commission, PIER Energy-Related Environmental Research Program & California Ocean Protection Council, PIER Final Project Report CEC-500-2008-083. Sacramento, CA: California Energy Commission. See http://www.energy.ca.gov/2008publications/CEC- 500-2008-083/.
15. Carbon Trust 2006 Future marine energy. Results of the marine energy challenge: Cost competitiveness and growth of wave and tidal stream energy. Report CTC601. London, UK: Carbon Trust. See http://www.carbontrust.co.uk/ publications/pages/publicationdetail. aspx?id=CTC601.
16. Kerr, D. 2007 Marine energy. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. A 365, 971-992. (doi:10.1098/rsta.2006.1959)
17. Pelc, R. & Fujita, R. M. 2002 Renewable energy from the ocean. Mar. Policy 26, 471-479. (doi:10.1016/S0308-597X(02)00045-3) (Pubitemid 36006465)
18. Gill, A. B. 2005 Offshore renewable energy: Ecological implications of generating electricity in the coastal zone. J. Appl. Ecol. 42, 605-615. (doi:10.1111/j.1365-2664.2005.01060.x) (Pubitemid 41710785)
19. Sutherland, W. J. et al. 2008 Future novel threats and opportunities facing UK biodiversity identified by horizon scanning. J. Appl. Ecol. 45, 821-833. (doi:10.1111/j.1365-2664.2008. 01474.x) (Pubitemid 351614875)
20. Inger, R. et al. 2009 Marine renewable energy: Potential benefits to biodiversity? An urgent call for research. J. Appl. Ecol. 46, 1145-1153. (doi:10.1111/j.1365-2664.2009.01697.x)
21. Boehlert, G. W. & Gill, A. B. 2010 Environmental and ecological effects of ocean renewable energy development: A current synthesis. Oceanography 23, 68-81. (doi:10.5670/oceanog. 2010.46)
22. Wilhelmsson, D. et al. 2010 Greening blue energy: Identifying and managing the biodiversity risks and opportunities of off shore renewable energy. Gland, Switzerland: International Union for Conservation of Nature. See http://www.iucn.org/about/work/programmes/marine/marine-resources/?5713/.
23. Shields, M. A. et al. 2011 Marine renewable energy: The ecological implications of altering the hydrodynamics of the marine environment. Ocean Coastal Manag. 54, 2-9. (doi:10.1016/j. ocecoaman.2010.10.036)
24. Kaiser, M. J., Clarke, K. R., Hinz, H., Austen, M. C. V., Somerfield, P. J. & Karakassis, I. 2006 Global analysis of response and recovery of benthic biota to fishing. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 311, 1-14. (doi:10.3354/meps311001) (Pubitemid 43760028)
25. Desholm, M. & Kahlert, J. 2005 Avian collision risk at an offshore wind farm. Biol. Lett. 1, 296-298. (doi:10.1098/rsbl.2005.0336) (Pubitemid 41374887)
26. Desholm, M., Fox, A. D., Beasley, P. D. L. & Kahlert, J. 2006 Remote techniques for counting and estimating the number of bird-wind turbine collisions at sea: A review. Ibis 148, 76-89. (doi:10.1111/j.1474-919X.2006. 00509.x)
27. Perrow, M. R., Skeate, E. R., Lines, P., Brown, D. & Tomlinson, M. L. 2006 Radio telemetry as a tool for impact assessment of wind farms: The case of little terns Sterna albifrons at Scroby Sands, Norfolk, UK. Ibis 148, 57-75. (doi:10.1111/j.1474-919X.2006.00508.x)
28. Brown, M. J., Linton, E. & Rees, E. C. 1992 Causes of mortality among wild swans in Britain. Wildfowl 43, 70-79. (Pubitemid 24407901)
29. Garthe, S. & Hüppop, O. 2004 Scaling possible adverse effects of marine wind farms on seabirds: Developing and applying a vulnerability index. J. Appl. Ecol. 41, 724-734. (doi:10.1111/j. 0021-8901.2004.00918.x) (Pubitemid 39040199)
30. De Lucas, M., Janss, G. F. E., Whitfield, D. P. & Ferrer, M. 2008 Collision fatality of raptors in wind farms does not depend on raptor abundance. J. Appl. Ecol. 45, 1695-1703. (doi:10.1111/j. 1365-2664.2008.01549.x)
31. Larsen, J. K. & Guillemette, M. 2007 Effects of wind turbines on flight behaviour of wintering common eiders: Implications for habitat use and collision risk. J. Appl. Ecol. 44, 516-522. (doi:10.1111/j.1365-2664.2007.01303. x) (Pubitemid 46791183)
32. Arnett, E. B. et al. 2008 Patterns of bat fatalities at wind energy facilities in North America. J. Wildl. Manag. 72, 61-78. (doi:10.2193/2007-221) (Pubitemid 351171950)
33. Henderson, I. G., Langston, R. H. W. & Clark, N. A. 1996 The response of common terns Sterna hirundo to power lines: An assessment of risk in relation to breeding commitment, age and wind speed. Biol. Conserv. 77, 185-192. (doi:10.1016/0006-3207(95)00144-1) (Pubitemid 27100988)
34. Grecian, W. J., Inger, R., Attrill, M. J., Bearhop, S., Godley, B. J., Witt, M. J. & Votier, S. C. 2010 Potential impacts of wave-powered marine renewable energy installations on marine birds. Ibis 152, 683-697. (doi:10.1111/j.1474-919X.2010.01048.x)
35. Wilson, B., Batty, R., Daunt, F. & Carter, C. 2007 Collision risks between marine renewable energy devices and mammals, fish and diving birds, Report to the Scottish Executive. Strategic Environmental Assessment of Marine Renewable Energy Development in Scotland. Oban, UK: Scottish Association for Marine Science. See http://www.seaenergyscotland.net/public-docs/Appendix%20C7. B%20Collisions-report-final-12-03-07.pdf.
36. Langton, R., Davies, I. M. & Scott, B. E. 2011 Seabird conservation and tidal stream and wave power generation: Information needs for predicting and managing potential impacts. Mar. Policy 35, 623-630. (doi:10.1016/j.marpol. 2011.02.002)
37. Horowitz, C. & Jasny, M. 2007 Precautionary management of noise: Lessons from the US. Marine Mammal Protection Act. J. Int. Wildl. Law Policy 10, 225-232. (doi:10.1080/13880290701769288)
38. Slabbekoorn, H., Bouton, N., van Opzeeland, I., Coers, A., ten Cate, C. & Popper, A. N. 2010 A noisy spring: The impact of globally rising underwater sound levels on fish. Trends Ecol. Evol. 25, 419-427. (doi:10.1016/j.tree.2010.04.005)
39. André, M. et al. 2011 Low-frequency sounds induce acoustic trauma in cephalopods. Front. Ecol. Environ. (doi:10.1890/100124)
40. Madsen, P. T., Wahlberg, M., Tougaard, J., Lucke, K. & Tyack, P. 2006 Wind turbine underwater noise and marine mammals: Implications of current knowledge and data needs. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 309, 279-295. (doi:10.3354/meps309279)
41. Edrén, S. M. C., Teilmann, J., Dietz, R. & Carstensen, J. 2004 Effects from the construction of Nysted offshore wind farm on seals in Rødsand seal sanctuary based on remote video monitoring. Technical report to Energi A/S. Roskilde, Denmark: National Environmental Research Institute Roskilde.
42. Carstensen, J., Henriksen, O. D. & Teilmann, J. 2006 Impacts of offshore wind farm construction on harbour porpoises: Acoustic monitoring of echolocation activity using porpoise detectors (T-PODs). Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 321, 295-308. (doi:10.3354/meps321295) (Pubitemid 44544795)
43. Andersson, M. H., Dock-Akerman, E., Ubral-Hedenberg, R., Ohman, M. C. & Sigray, P. 2007 Swimming behavior of roach (Rutilus rutilus) and three-spined stickleback (Gasterosteus aculeatus) in response to wind power noise and single-tone frequencies. AMBIO J. Hum. Environ. 36, 636-638. (doi:10.1579/0044-7447(2007)36[636:SBORRR]2.0.CO;2)
44. Masden, E. A., Fox, A. D., Furness, R. W., Bullman, R. & Haydon, D. T. 2010 Cumulative impact assessments and bird/wind farm interactions: Developing a conceptual framework. Environ. Impact Assess. Rev. 30, 1-7. (doi:10.1016/j.eiar.2009.05.002)
45. CMACS 2003 A baseline assessment of electromagnetic fields generated by offshore windfarm cables. COWRIE Report EMF-01-2002 66. Liverpool, UK: Centre for Marine and Coastal Studies.
46. Wiltschko, W. & Wiltschko, R. 2005 Magnetic orientation and magnetoreception in birds and other animals. J. Compar. Physiol. A Neuroethol. Sens. Neural Behav. Physiol. 191, 675-693. (doi:10.1007/s00359-005-0627-7) (Pubitemid 41204265)
47. Luschi, P., Benhamou, S., Girard, C., Ciccione, S., Roos, D., Sudre, J. & Benvenuti, S. 2007 Marine turtles use geomagnetic cues during open-sea homing. Curr. Biol. 17, 126-133. (doi:10.1016/j.cub.2006.11.062) (Pubitemid 46131410)
48. Gould, J. L. 2008 Animal navigation: The evolution of magnetic orientation. Curr. Biol. 18, R482-R484. (doi:10.1016/j.cub.2008.03.052) (Pubitemid 351734637)
49. Westerberg, H. & Lagenfelt, I. 2008 Sub-sea power cables and the migration behaviour of the European eel. Fish. Manag. Ecol. 15, 369-375. (doi:10.1111/j.1365-2400.2008.00630.x)
50. Öhman, M. C., Sigray, P. & Westerberg, H. 2007 Offshore windmills and the effects of electromagnetic fields on fish. AMBIO J. Hum. Environ. 36, 630-633. (doi:10.1579/0044-7447 (2007)36[630:OWATEO]2.0.CO;2)
51. Bickel, S. L., Malloy Hammond, J. D. & Tang, K. W. 2011 Boat-generated turbulence as a potential source of mortality among copepods. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 401, 105-109. (doi:10.1016/j.jembe.2011.02.038)
52. Linley, E. A. S., Wilding, T. A., Black, K., Hawkins, A. J. S. & Mangi, S. 2007 Review of the reef effects of offshore wind farm structures and their potential for enhancement and mitigation. Report to Department for Business, Enterprise and Regulatory Reform (BERR), No. RFCA/005/0029P Plymouth. London, UK: Department for Business, Enterprise and Regulatory Reform.
53. Martins, G., Thompson, R., Neto, A., Hawkins, S. & Jenkins, S. 2010 Enhancing stocks of the exploited limpet Patella candei d'Orbigny via modifications in coastal engineering. Biol. Conserv. 143, 203-211. (doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2009.10.004)
54. Petersen, J. K. & Malm, T. 2006 Offshore windmill farms: Threats to or possibilities for the marine environment. AMBIO J. Hum. Environ. 35, 75-80. (doi:10.1579/0044-7447(2006)35 [75:OWFTTO]2.0.CO;2)
55. Thurstan, R. H., Brockington, S. & Roberts, C. M. 2009 The effects of 118 years of industrial fishing on UK bottom trawl fisheries. Nat. Commun. 1, 1-6. (doi:10.1038/ncomms1013)
56. Wilhelmsson, D., Malm, T. & Ohman, M. C. 2006 The influence of offshore windpower on demersal fish. ICES J. Mar. Sci. 63, 775-784. (doi:10.1016/j.icesjms.2006.02.001) (Pubitemid 43775482)
57. Fayram, A. H. & de Risi, A. 2007 The potential compatibility of offshore wind power and fisheries: An example using bluefin tuna in the Adriatic Sea. Ocean Coast. Manag. 50, 597-605. (doi:10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2007.05.004) (Pubitemid 47088943)
58. Castro, J. J., Santiago, J. A. & Santana-Ortega, A. T. 2001 A general theory on fish aggregation to floating objects: An alternative to the meeting point hypothesis. Rev. Fish. Biol. Fish. 11, 255-277. (doi:10.1023/A: 1020302414472) (Pubitemid 35225184)
59. Nelson, P. A. 2003 Marine fish assemblages associated with fish aggregating devices (FADs): Effects of fish removal, FAD size, fouling communities, and prior recruits. Fish. Bull. 101, 835-850. (Pubitemid 37481614)
60. Osterblom, H., Casini, M., Olsson, O. & Bignert, A. 2006 Fish, seabirds and trophic cascades in the Baltic Sea. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 323, 233-238. (doi:10.3354/meps323233) (Pubitemid 44689630)
61. Friedlander, A. M., Brown, E. & Monaco, M. E. 2007 Defining reef fish habitat utilization patterns in Hawaii: Comparisons between marine protected areas and areas open to fishing. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 351, 221-233. (doi:10.3354/meps07112)
62. Stewart, G., Pullin, A. & Coles, C. 2007 Poor evidence-base for assessment of windfarm impacts on birds. Environ. Conserv. 34, 1-11. (doi:10.1017/S0376892907003554) (Pubitemid 47065828)
63. Rosenzweig, M. 2003 Win-win ecology: How the Earth's species can survive in the midst of human enterprise? Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
64. BERR 2008 Atlas of UK marine renewable energy resources. London, UK: Department for Business, Innovation & Skills.
65. Mills, C. M., Townsend, S. E., Jennings, S., Eastwood, P. D. & Houghton, C. A. 2007 Estimating high resolution trawl fishing effort from satellite-derived vessel monitoring system data. ICES J. Mar. Sci. 64, 248-255. (doi:10.1093/icesjms/fsl026) (Pubitemid 47083340)
66. Witt, M. J. & Godley, B. J. 2007 A step towards seascape scale conservation: Using vessel monitoring systems (VMS) to map fishing activity. PLoS ONE 2, e1111. (doi:10.1371/journal. pone.0001111)
67. Foden, J., Rogers, S. & Jones, A. 2010 Recovery of UK seabed habitats from benthic fishing and aggregate extraction: Towards a cumulative impact assessment. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 411, 259-270. (doi:10.3354/meps08662)
68. Rees, H. L., Pendle, M. A., Waldock, R., Limpenny, D. S. & Boyd, S. E. 1999 A comparison of benthic biodiversity in the North Sea, English Channel, and Celtic Seas. ICES J. Mar. Sci. 56, 228-246. (doi:10.1006/jmsc.1998.0438) (Pubitemid 29324186)
69. Stobart, B. et al. 2007 A baited underwater video technique to assess shallow-water Mediterranean fish assemblages: Methodological evaluation. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 345, 158-174. (doi:10.1016/j.jembe.2007.02.009) (Pubitemid 46660882)
70. Sheehan, E. V., Coleman, R. A., Attrill, M. J. & Thompson, R. C. 2010 A quantitative assessment of the response of mobile estuarine fauna to crab-tiles during tidal immersion using remote underwater video cameras. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 387, 68-74. (doi:10.1016/j.jembe. 2010.02.008)
71. Holme, N. A. 1985 Use of photographic and television cameras on the continental shelf. In Underwater photography and television for scientists (eds J. D. George, G. I. Lythgoe & J. N. Lythgoe), pp. 88-99. Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press.
72. Berkelmans, R. 1992 Video photography: A quantitative sampling method. Reef Res. 2, 10-11.
73. Parry, D. M., Kendall, M. A., Pilgrim, D. A. & Jones, M. B. 2003 Identification of patch structure within marine benthic landscapes using a remotely operated vehicle. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 285, 497-511. (doi:10.1016/S0022-0981(02)00546-4) (Pubitemid 36211202)
74. Sheehan, E. V., Stevens, T. F. & Attrill, M. J. 2010 A quantitative, non-destructive methodology for habitat characterisation and benthic monitoring at offshore renewable energy developments. PLoS ONE 5, e14461. (doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0014461)
75. Underwood, A. J. 1992 Beyond BACI: The detection of environmental impacts on populations in the real, but variable, world. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 161, 145-178. (doi:10.1016/0022-0981 (92)90094-Q) (Pubitemid 23399186)
76. Leitão, F., Santos, M. N., Erzini, K. & Monteiro, C. C. 2008 Fish assemblages and rapid colonization after enlargement of an artificial reef off the Algarve coast (southern Portugal). Mar. Ecol. Evol. Perspect. 29, 435-448. (doi:10.1111/j.1439-0485.2008.00253.x)
77. Bohnsack, J. A. 1989 Are high-densities of fishes at artificial reefs the result of habitat limitation or behavioural preference? Bull. Mar. Sci. 44, 631-645. (Pubitemid 20421568)
78. Grossman, G. D., Jones, G. P. & Seaman, W. J. 1997 Do artificial reefs increase regional fish production? A review of existing data. Fisheries 22, 17-23. (doi:10.1577/1548-8446(1997)022<0017:DARIRF>2.0.CO;2)
79. Sims, D. W., Nash, J. P. & Morritt, D. 2001 Movements and activity of male and female dogfish in a tidal sea lough: Alternative behavioural strategies and apparent sexual segregation. Mar. Biol. 139, 1165-1175. (doi:10.1007/s002270100666) (Pubitemid 34049869)
80. Sims, D. W. et al. 2006 Hunt warm, rest cool: Bioenergetic strategy underlying diel vertical migration of a benthic shark. J. Anim. Ecol. 75, 176-190. (doi:10.1111/j.1365-2656.2005. 01033.x)
81. Polunin, N., Bloomfield, H., Sweeting, C. & McCandless, D. 2009 Developing indicators of MPA effectiveness: Finfish abundance and diversity in a Yorkshire prohibited trawl area. Report to MFA, London.
82. Priede, I. G. & Merrett, N. R. 1996 Estimation of abundance of abyssal demersal fishes; a comparison of data from trawls and baited cameras. J. Fish Biol. 49, 207-216. (doi:10.1111/j. 1095-8649.1996.tb06077.x)
83. Heagney, E., Lynch, T., Babcock, R. & Suthers, I. 2007 Pelagic fish assemblages assessed using mid-water baited video: Standardising fish counts using bait plume size. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 350, 255-266. (doi:10.3354/ meps07193)
84. Ehrich, S., Stelzenmuller, V. & Adlerstein, S. 2009 Linking spatial pattern of bottom fish assemblages with water masses in the North Sea. Fish. Oceanogr. 18, 36-50. (doi:10.1111/j.1365- 2419.2008.00495.x)
85. Reiss, H. et al. 2010 Spatial patterns of infauna, epifauna, and demersal fish communities in the North Sea. ICES J. Mar. Sci. 67, 278-293. (doi:10.1093/icesjms/fsp253)
86. Certain, G. & Bretagnolle, V. 2008 Monitoring seabirds population in marine ecosystem: The use of strip-transect aerial surveys. Remote Sens. Environ. 112, 3314-3322. (doi:10.1016/j.rse. 2008.01.019)
87. Greenwood, J. J. D. & Robinson, R. A. 2006 General census methods. In Ecological census techniques: A handbook (ed. W. J. Sutherland). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
88. Ropert-Coudert, Y. & Wilson, R. P. 2005 Trends and perspectives in animal-attached remote sensing. Front. Ecol. Environ. 3, 437-444. (doi:10.1890/1540-9295(2005)003[0437:TAPIAR] 2.0.CO;2) (Pubitemid 41407518)
89. Masden, E. A., Haydon, D. T., Fox, A. D., Furness, R. W., Bullman, R. & Desholm, M. 2009 Barriers to movement: Impacts of wind farms on migrating birds. ICES J. Mar. Sci. 66, 746-753. (doi:10.1093/icesjms/fsp031)
90. Votier, S. C., Grecian, W. J., Patrick, S. & Newton, J. 2011 Inter-colony movements, at-sea behaviour and foraging in an immature seabird: Results from GPS-PTT tracking, radio-tracking and stable isotope analysis. Mar. Biol. 158, 355-362. (doi:10.1007/s00227-010-1563-9)
91. Votier, S. C., Bearhop, S., Witt, M. J., Inger, R., Thompson, D. & Newton, J. 2010 Individual responses of seabirds to commercial fisheries revealed using GPS tracking, stable isotopes and vessel monitoring systems. J. Appl. Ecol. 47, 487-497. (doi:10.1111/j.1365-2664.2010.01790.x)
92. Macleod, K., Fresne, S. D., Mackey, B., Faustino, C. & Boyd, I. 2010 Approaches to marine mammal monitoring at marine renewable energy developments. Sea Mammal Research Unit St Andrews, St Andrews, UK.
93. Hammond, P. et al. 2002 Abundance of harbour porpoise and other cetaceans in the North Sea and adjacent waters. J. Appl. Ecol. 39, 361-376. (doi:10.1046/j.1365-2664.2002.00713.x) (Pubitemid 34523126)
94. Hammond, P. S. 2007 Final report on small cetacean abundance in the European Atlantic and North Sea (SCANS-II). Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs, London, UK.
95. Buckland, S. T., Anderson, D. R., Burnham, K. P., Laake, J. L., Borchers, D. L. & Thomas, L. 2001 Introduction to distance sampling: Estimating abundance of biological populations. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
96. Mellinger, D. K., Stafford, K. M., Moore, S. E., Dziak, R. P. & Matsumoto, H. 2007 An overview of fixed passive acoustic observation methods for cetaceans. Oceanography 20, 36-45. (doi:10.5670/oceanog.2007.03)
97. Philpott, E., Englund, A., Ingram, S. & Rogan, E. 2007 Using T-PODs to investigate the echolocation of coastal bottlenose dolphins. J. Mar. Biol. Assoc. 87, 11-17. (doi:10.1017/S002531540705494X) (Pubitemid 46340603)
98. Verfub, U. K., Honnef, C. G., Meding, A., Dahne, M., Mundry, R. & Benke, H. 2007 Geographical and seasonal variation of harbour porpoise (Phocoena phocoena) presence in the German Baltic Sea revealed by passive acoustic monitoring. J. Mar. Biol. Assoc. 87, 165-176. (doi:10.1017/S0025315407054938) (Pubitemid 46340625)
99. Todd, V. L. G., Pearse, W. D., Tregenza, N. C., Lepper, P. A. & Todd, I. B. 2009 Diel echolocation activity of harbour porpoises (Phocoena phocoena) around North Sea offshore gas installations. ICES J. Mar. Sci. 66, 734-745. (doi:10.1093/icesjms/fsp035)
100. Bailey, H., Clay, G., Coates, E. A., Lusseau, D., Senior, B. & Thompson, P. M. 2010 Using T-PODs to assess variations in the occurrence of coastal bottlenose dolphins and harbour porpoises. Aquatic Conserv. Mar. Freshwater Ecosyst. 20, 150-158. (doi:10.1002/aqc.1060)
101. Edrén, S. M. C., Andersen, S. M., Teilmann, J., Carstensen, J., Harders, P. B., Dietz, R. & Miller, L. A. 2010 The effect of a large Danish offshore wind farm on harbor and gray seal haul-out behavior. Mar. Mamm. Sci. 26, 614-634. (doi:10.1111/j.1748-7692.2009.00364.x)
102. McConnell, B. J., Chambers, C., Nicholas, K. S. & Fedak, M. A. 1992 Satellite tracking of grey seals (Halichoerus grypus). J. Zool. 226, 271-282. (doi:10.1111/j.1469-7998.1992.tb03839.x)
103. Leeney, R. H., Broderick, A. C., Mills, C., Sayer, S., Witt, M. J. & Godley, B. J. 2010 Abundance, distribution and haul-out behaviour of grey seals (Halichoerus grypus) in Cornwall and the Isles of Scilly, UK. J. Mar. Biol. Assoc. 90, 1033-1040. (doi:10.1017/S0025315409991512)
104. Eastwood, P. D., Mills, C. M., Aldridge, J. N., Houghton, C. A. & Rogers, S. I. 2007 Human activities in UK offshore waters: An assessment of direct, physical pressure on the seabed. ICES J. Mar. Sci. 64, 453-463. (doi:10.1093/icesjms/fsm001) (Pubitemid 47086247)
105. Lee, J., South, A. B. & Jennings, S. 2010 Developing reliable, repeatable, and accessible methods to provide high-resolution estimates of fishing-effort distributions from vessel monitoring system (VMS) data. ICES J. Mar. Sci. 67, 1260-1271. (doi:10.1093/icesjms/fsq010)
106. Vanstaen, K., Clark, R., Ware, S., Eggleton, J., James, J. C. W., Cotteril, C., Rance, J., Manco, F. & Woolmer, A. 2010 Assessment of the distribution and intensity of fishing activities in the vicinity of aggregate extraction sites. MALSF-MEPF Project 08/P73. Cefas, Lowestoft, UK.
107. Jennings, S., Dinmore, T. A., Duplisea, D. E., Warr, K. J. & Lancaster, J. E. 2001 Trawling disturbance can modify benthic production processes. J. Anim. Ecol. 70, 459-475. (doi:10.1046/j.1365-2656.2001.00504.x) (Pubitemid 32473568)
108. Miller, P. I. 2009 Composite front maps for improved visibility of dynamic sea-surface features on cloudy SeaWiFS and AVHRR data. J. Mar. Syst. 78, 327-336. (doi:10.1016/j.jmarsys. 2008.11.019)
109. Miller, P. I., Christodoulou, S. & Saux-Picart, S. 2010 Oceanic thermal fronts from Earth observation data: A potential surrogate for pelagic diversity. Report to Department of Environment, Food and Rural Affairs. Defra Contract No. MB102. Plymouth Marine Laboratory.
110. Jensen, A. C., Collins, K. J., Lockwood, A. P. M., Mallinson, J. J. & Turnpenny, W. H. 1994 Colonization and fishery potential of a coal-ash artificial reef, Poole Bay, United Kingdom. Bull. Mar. Sci. 55, 1263-1276.
111. Hueckel, G. J., Buckley, R. M. & Benson, B. L. 1989 Mitigating rocky habitat loss using artificial reefs. Bull. Mar. Sci. 44, 913-922. (Pubitemid 20422464)
112. Pickering, H., Whitmarsh, D. & Jensen, A. 1998 Artificial reefs as a tool to aid rehabilitation of coastal ecosystems: Investigating the potential. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 37, 505-514. (doi:10.1016/S0025-326X(98)00121-0) (Pubitemid 29435604)
113. Jensen, A. 1999 Artificial reefs of Europe: Perspective and future. In Proc. 7th Int. Conf. on Artificial Reefs and Related Aquatic Habitats, San Remo, Italy, pp. S3-S13.
114. Charbonnel, E., Serre, C., Ruitton, S., Harmelin, J. G. & Jensen, A. 2002 Effects of increased habitat complexity on fish assemblages associated with large artificial reef units (French Mediterranean coast). ICES J. Mar. Sci. 59, S208-S213. (doi:10.1006/jmsc.2002.1263) (Pubitemid 35280813)
115. Bohnsack, J. A., Ecklund, A. M. & Szmant, A. M. 1997 Artificial reef research: Is there more than the attraction-production issue? Fisheries 22, 14-16.
116. Andersson, M. H., Berggren, M., Wilhelmsson, D. & Ohman, M. C. 2009 Epibenthic colonization of concrete and steel pilings in a cold-temperate embayment: A field experiment. Helgoland Mar. Res. 63, 249-260. (doi:10.1007/s10152-009-0156-9)
117. Langhamer, O. & Wilhelmsson, D. 2009 Colonisation of fish and crabs of wave energy foundations and the effects of manufactured holes: A field experiment. Mar. Environ. Res. 68, 151-157. (doi:10.1016/j.marenvres.2009.06. 003)
118. Wilson, J. C., Elliott, M., Cutts, N. D., Mander, L., Mendao, V., Perez-Dominguez, R. & Phelps, A. 2010 Coastal and offshore wind energy generation: Is it environmentally benign? Energies 3, 1383-1422. (doi:10.3390/en3071383)
119. Russ, G. R. & Alcala, A. C. 1996 Do marine reserves export adult fish biomass? Evidence from Apo Island, central Philippines. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 132, 1-9. (doi:10.3354/meps132001)
120. Gaylord, B., Gaines, S. D., Siegel, D. A. & Carr, M. H. 2005 Marine reserves exploit population structure and life history in potentially improving fisheries yields. Ecol. Appl. 15, 2180-2191. (doi:10.1890/04-1810) (Pubitemid 43112075)