A review of turfgrass fertilizer management practices: Implications for urban water quality

HortTechnology

Volumn 22, Issue 3, 2012, Pages 280-291

  Carey, Richard O ^a   Hochmuth, George J ^a   Martinez, Christopher J ^b   Boyer, Treavor H ^b   Nair, Vimala D ^a   Dukes, Michael D ^b   Toor, Gurpal S ^c   Shober, Amy L ^c   Cisar, John L ^a   Trenholm, Laurie E ^d   Sartain, Jerry B ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA   (United States)

^b J Crayton Pruitt Family Department of Biomedical Engineering   (United States)

^c UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA   (United States)

^d UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA   (United States)

Author keywords

Landscaping practices; Nitrogen; Nutrient leaching; Nutrient runoff; Phosphorus; Socioeconomics; Turfgrass irrigation

Indexed keywords

POACEAE;

EID: 84863207842     PISSN: 10630198     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.21273/horttech.22.3.280     Document Type: Review

References (125)

1. Agnew, M.L. and N.E. Christians1993Influence of fertilizer source and core cultivation on the growth of kentucky bluegrassIntl. Turfgrass Soc. Res. J7:458-467.
2. Allen, S.C., V.D. Nair, D.A. Graetz, S. Jose, and P.K. Ramachandran Nair2006. Phosphorus loss from organic versus inorganic fertilizers used in alleycropping on a Florida ultisol. Agr. Ecosyst. Environ. 117:290-298.
3. Amador, J.A., R.J. Hull, E.L. Patenaude, J.T. Bushoven, and J.H. Gorres. 2007. Potential nitrate leaching under common landscaping plants. Water Air Soil Pollut. 185:323-333.
4. Augustin, B.J. and G.H. Snyder. 1984. Moisture sensor-controlled irrigation for maintaining bermudagrass turf. Agron. J. 76:848-850.
5. Barton, L. and T.D. Colmer. 2006. Irrigation and fertiliser strategies for minimising nitrogen leaching from turfgrass. Agr. Water Mgt. 80:160-175.
6. Beard, J.B. and R.L. Green. 1994. The role of turfgrasses in environmental protection and their benefits to humans. J. Environ. Qual. 23:452-460.
7. Bell, G.E. and J.Q. Moss. 2008. Management practices that reduce runoff transport of nutrients and pesticides from turfgrass, p. 133-150. In: M.T. Nett, M.J. Caroll, B.P. Horgan, and A.M. Petrovic (eds.). The fate of nutrients and pesticides in the urban environment. Amer. Chem. Soc., Washington, DC.
8. Bierman, P.M., B.P. Horgan, C.J. Rosen, A.B. Hollman, and P.H. Pagliari. 2010. Phosphorus runoff from turfgrass as affected by phosphorus fertilization and clipping management. J. Environ. Qual. 39:282-292.
9. Bowman, D.C., C.T. Cherney, and T.W. Rufty. 2002. Fate and transport of nitrogen applied to six warm-season turfgrasses. Crop Sci. 42:833-841.
10. Bowman, D.C., D.A. Devitt, M.C. Engelke, and T.W. Rufty, Jr. 1998. The effect of root architecture on nitrate leaching from bentgrass turf. Crop Sci. 38:1633-1639.
11. Bowman, D.C., J.L. Paul, and W.B. Davis. 1989. Rapid depletion of nitrogen applied to kentucky bluegrass turf. J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 114:229-233.
12. Branham, B. 2008. Leaching of pesticides and nitrate in turfgrasses, p. 107-120. In: J.B. Beard and M.P. Kenna (eds.). Water quality and quantity issues for turfgrasses in urban landscapes. Council Agr. Sci. Technol., Ames, IA.
13. Brauen, S. and G. Stahnke. 1995. Leaching of nitrate from sand putting greens. U.S. Golf Assn. Green Section Record 33:29-32.
14. Broschat, T.K., D.R. Sandrock, M.L. Elliott, and E.F. Gilman. 2008. Effects of fertilizer type on quality and nutrient content of established landscape plants in Florida. HortTechnology 18:278-285.
15. Busey, P. 2003. Cultural management of weeds in turfgrass: A review. Crop Sci. 43:1899-1911.
16. Carrow, R.N. 1997. Turfgrass response to slow-release nitrogen fertilizers. Agron. J. 89:491-496.
17. Cisar, J.L., G.H. Snyder, J.J. Haydu, and K.E. Williams. 2001. Turfgrass response to coated urea fertilizers. Proc. Florida State Hort. Soc. 114:254-258.
18. Cisar, J.L., J.E. Erickson, G.H. Snyder, J.J. Haydu, and J.C. Volin. 2004. Documenting nitrogen leaching and runoff losses from urban landscapes, p. 161-179. In: W.L. Hall and W.P. Robarge (eds.). Environmental impact of fertilizer on soil and water. Amer. Chem. Soc., Washington, DC.
19. Cole, J.T., J.H. Baird, N.T. Basta, R.L. Huhnke, D.E. Storm, G.V. Johnson, M.E. Payton, M.D. Smolen, D.L. Martin, and J.C. Cole. 1997. Influence of buffers on pesticide and nutrient runoff from bermudagrass turf. J. Environ. Qual. 26:1589-1598.
20. Coulter, C.B., R.K. Kolka, and J.A. Thompson. 2004. Water quality in agricultural, urban, and mixed land use watersheds. J. Amer. Water Resources Assn. 40:1593-1601.
21. Davis, N.M. and M.J. Lydy. 2002. Evaluating best management practices at an urban golf course. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 21:1076-1084.
22. Devitt, D.A. and R.L. Morris. 2008. Urban landscape water conservation and the species effect, p. 171-192. In: J.B. Beard and M.P. Kenna (eds.). Water quality and quantity issues for turfgrasses in urban landscapes. Council Agr. Sci. Technol., Ames, IA.
23. Dudeck, A.E., C.H. Peacock, and T.E. Freeman. 1985. Response of selected bermudagrasses to nitrogen fertilization, p. 495-504. In: Proc. Intl. Turfgrass Res. Conf., Avignon, France. 1-5 July. Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique, Paris.
24. Dunn, J.H., D.D. Minner, B.F. Fresenburg, and S.S. Bughrara. 1993. Fall fertilization of zoysiagrass. Intl. Turfgrass Soc. Res. J. 7:565-571.
25. Easton, Z.M. and A.M. Petrovic. 2004. Fertilizer source effect on ground and surface water quality in drainage from turfgrass. J. Environ. Qual. 33:645-655.
26. Easton, Z.M. and A.M. Petrovic. 2008. Determining phosphorus loading rates based on land use in an urban watershed, p. 43-62. In: M.T. Nett, M.J. Caroll, B.P. Horgan, and A.M. Petrovic (eds.). The fate of nutrients and pesticides in the urban environment. Amer. Chem. Soc., Washington, DC.
27. Engelsjord, M.E., B.E. Branham, and B.P. Horgan. 2004. The fate of nitrogen-15 ammonium sulfate applied to kentucky bluegrass and perennial ryegrass turfs. Crop Sci. 44:1341-1347.
28. Engelsjord, M.E. and B.R. Singh. 1997. Effects of slow release fertilizers on growth and on update and leaching of nutrients in kentucky bluegrass turfs established on sand-based root zones. Can. J. Plant Sci. 77:433-444.
29. Erickson, J.E., D.M. Park, J.L. Cisar, G.H. Snyder, and A.L. Wright. 2010. Effects of sod type, irrigation, and fertilization on nitrate-nitrogen and orthophosphatephosphorus leaching from newly established st. augustinegrass sod. Crop Sci. 50:1030-1036.
30. Erickson, J.E., J.L. Cisar, G.H. Snyder, D.M. Park, and K.E. Williams. 2008. Does a mixed-species landscape reduce inorganic-nitrogen leaching compared to a conventional st. augustinegrass lawn? Crop Sci. 48:1586-1594.
31. Erickson, J.E., J.L. Cisar, G.H. Snyder, and J.C. Volin. 2005. Phosphorus and potassium leaching under contrasting residential landscape models established on a sandy soil. Crop Sci. 45:546-552.
32. Erickson, J.E., J.L. Cisar, J.C. Volin, and G.H. Snyder. 2001. Comparing nitrogen runoff and leaching between newly established st. augustinegrass turf and an alternative residential landscape. Crop Sci. 41:1889-1895.
33. Exner, M.E., M.E. Burbach, D.G. Watts, R.C. Shearman, and R.F. Spalding. 1991. Deep nitrate movement in the unsaturated zone of a simulated urban lawn. J. Environ. Qual. 20:658-662.
34. Florida Department of Environmental Protection. 2009. Total Maximum Daily Loads Program. 27 Apr. 2012. .
35. Florida Department of Environmental Protection. 2012. Surface water quality standards. 27 Apr. 2012. .
36. Frank, K.W. 2008. Nitrogen fate in a mature kentucky bluegrass turf, p. 63-77. In: M.T. Nett, M.J. Caroll, B.P. Horgan, and A.M. Petrovic (eds.). The fate of nutrients and pesticides in the urban environment. Amer. Chem. Soc., Washington, DC.
37. Frank, K.W., K.M. O'Reilly, J.R. Crum, and R.N. Calhoun. 2006. The fate of nitrogen applied to a mature kentucky bluegrass turf. Crop Sci. 46:209-215.
38. Gold, A.J., W.R. DeRagoon, W.M. Sullivan, and J.L. Lemunyon. 1990. Nitrate-nitrogen losses to groundwater from rural and suburban land uses. J. Soil Water Conserv. 45:305-310.
39. Groffman, P.M., C.O. Williams, R.V. Pouyat, L.E. Band, and I.D. Yesilonis. 2009. Nitrate leaching and nitrous oxide flux in urban forests and grasslands. J. Environ. Qual. 38:1848-1860.
40. Gross, C.M., J.S. Angle, and M.S. Welterlen. 1990. Nutrient and sediment losses from turfgrass. J. Environ. Qual. 19: 663-668.
41. Grossi, N., F. Lulli, M. Volterrani, and S. Miele. 2005. Timing of fall nitrogen application on tall fescue turf. Intl. Turfgrass Soc. Res. J. 10:462-465.
42. Guillard, K. and K.L. Kopp. 2004. Nitrogen fertilizer form and associated nitrate leaching from cool-season lawn turf. J. Environ. Qual. 33:1822-1827.
43. Hartman, R., F. Alcock, and C. Pettit. 2008. The spread of fertilizer ordinances in Florida. Sea Grant Law Policy J. 1:98-115.
44. Harwell, C.C., C.W. Deren, G.H. Snyder, W.D. Solecki, J. Wilson, and M.A. Harwell. 1999. Use of a conceptual model of societal drivers of ecological change in south Florida: Implications of an ecosystem management scenario. Urban Ecosyst. 3: 345-368.
45. Heckman, J.R., H. Liu, W. Hill, M. DeMilia, and W.L. Anastasia. 2000. Kentucky bluegrass responses to mowing practice and nitrogen fertility management. J. Sustain. Agr. 15:25-33.
46. Henson, D.Y., S.E. Newman, and D.E. Hartley. 2006. Performance of selected herbaceous annual ornamentals grown at decreasing levels of irrigation. Hort-Science 41:1481-1486.
47. Hipp, B., S. Alexander, and T. Knowles. 1993. Use of resource-efficient plants to reduce nitrogen, phosphorus, and pesticide runoff in residential and commercial landscapes. Water Sci. Technol. 28:205-213.
48. Hochmuth, G., T. Nell, J. Sartain, B. Unruh, M. Dukes, C. Martinez, L. Trenholm, and J. Cisar. 2009. Unintended consequences associated with certain urban fertilizer ordinances. Univ. Florida Coop. Ext. Serv. SL283.
49. Hull, R.J. and H. Liu. 2005. Turfgrass nitrogen: Physiology and environmental impacts. Intl. Turfgrass Soc. Res. J. 10:962-975.
50. Israel, G.D., J.O. Easton, and G.W. Knox. 1999. Adoption of landscape management practices by Florida residents. Hort-Technology 9:262-266.
51. Jacobson, S.K. 2009. Communication skills for conservation professionals. 2nd ed. Island Press, Washington, DC.
52. Johnson, G.A., J.G. Davis, Y.L. Qian, and K.C. Doesken. 2006. Topdressing turf with composted manure improves soil quality and protects water quality. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. J. 70:2114-2121.
53. Kaushal, S.S., P.M. Groffman, L.E. Band, C.A. Shields, R.P. Morgan, M.A. Palmer, K.T. Belt, C.M. Swan, S.E.G. Findlay, and G.T. Fisher. 2008. Interaction between urbanization and climate variability amplifies watershed nitrate export in Maryland. Environ. Sci. Technol. 42:5872-5878.
54. Kenna, P.K. 2008. Turfgrass and the environment, p. 65-90. In: J.B. Beard and M.P. Kenna (eds.). Water quality and quantity issues for turfgrasses in urban landscapes. Council Agr. Sci. Technol., Ames, IA.
55. King, K.W. and J.C. Balogh. 2008. Nutrient and pesticide transport in surface runoff from perennial grasses in the urban landscape, p. 121-152. In: J.B. Beard andM.P. Kenna (eds.). Water quality and quantity issues for turfgrasses in urban landscapes. Council Agr. Sci. Technol., Ames, IA.
56. King, K.W., J.C. Balogh, and D. Kohlbry. 2008. Discharge losses of nitrogen and phosphorus in from a golf course watershed, p. 79-91. In: M.T. Nett, M.J. Caroll, B.P. Horgan, and A.M. Petrovic (eds.). The fate of nutrients and pesticides in the urban environment. Amer. Chem. Soc., Washington, DC.
57. King, K.W., R.D. Harmel, A. Torbert, and J.C. Balogh. 2001. Impact of a turfgrass system on nutrient loadings to surface water. J. Amer. Water Resources Assn. 37:629-640.
58. Kopp, K.L. and K. Guillard. 2002. Clipping management and nitrogen fertilization of turfgrass: Growth, nitrogen utilization, and quality. Crop Sci. 42: 1225-1231.
59. Krans, J.J. and K. Morris. 2007. Determining a profile of protocols and standards used in the visual field assessment of turfgrasses: A survey of national turfgrass evaluation program-sponsored university scientists. Appl. Turfgrass Sci. doi: 10.1094/ATS-2007-1130-01-TT.
60. Kussow, W.R. 2004. Phosphorus runoff losses from lawns. Better Crops 88: 12-13.
61. Kussow, W.R. 2008. Management practices affecting nitrogen and soluble phosphorus losses from an upper midwest lawn, p. 1-18. In: M.T. Nett, M.J. Caroll, B.P. Horgan, and A.M. Petrovic (eds.). The fate of nutrients and pesticides in the urban environment. Amer. Chem. Soc., Washington, DC.
62. Kussow, W.R., S.M. Combs, A.J. Sausen, and D.J. Soldat. 2011. Lawn Fertilization. Univ. Wisconsin Ext. Serv. Publ. A2303.
63. Law, N., L. Band, and M. Grove. 2004. Nitrogen input from residential lawn care practices in suburban watersheds in Baltimore County, MD. J. Environ. Plann. Mgt. 47:737-755.
64. Lehman, J.T., D.W. Bell, and K.E. McDonald. 2009. Reduced river phosphorus following implementation of a lawn fertilizer ordinance. Lake Reservior Mgt. 25:307-312.
65. Linde, D.T. and T.L. Watschke. 1997. Nutrients and sediment in runoff from creeping bentgrass and perennial ryegrass turfs. J. Environ. Qual. 26:1248-1254.
66. Linde, D.T., T.L. Watschke, A.R. Jarret, and J.A. Borger. 1995. Surface runoff assessment from creeping bentgrass and perennial ryegrass turf. Agron. J. 87:176-182.
67. Line, D.E., N.M. White, D.L. Osmond, G.D. Jennings, and C.B. Mojonnier. 2002. Pollutant export from various land uses in the Upper Neuse River Basin. Water Environ. Res. 74:100-108.
68. Liu, M., J.B. Sartain, L.E. Trenholm, and G.L. Miller. 2008. Phosphorus requirements of st. augustinegrass grown in sandy soils. Crop Sci. 48:1178-1186.
69. Mangiafico, S.S. and K. Guillard. 2006. Fall fertilization timing effects on nitrate leaching and turfgrass color and growth. J. Environ. Qual. 35:163-171.
70. Minnesota Department of Agriculture. 2007. Report to the Minnesota Legislature: Effectiveness of the Minnesota phosphorus lawn fertilizer law. Minnesota Department of Agriculture, Saint Paul.
71. Milesi, C., S.W. Running, C.D. Elvidge, J.B. Dietz, B.T. Tuttle, and R.R. Nemani. 2005. Mapping and modeling the biogeochemical cycling of turfgrasses in the United States. Environ. Mgt. 36:426-438.
72. Miller, E. and L. Buys. 2008. The impact of social capital on residential wateraffecting behaviors in a drought-prone Australian community. Soc. Nat. Resour. 21:244-257.
73. Miltner, E.D., B.E. Branham, E.A. Paul, and P.E. Rieke. 1996. Leaching and mass balance of 15N-labeled urea applied to a kentucky bluegrass turf. Crop Sci. 36:1427-1433.
74. Morris, K.N. and R.S. Shearman. 2012. NTEP Turfgrass Evaluation Guidelines. 8 Apr. 2012. .
75. Morton, L.W. and S. Padgitt. 2005. Selecting socio-economic metrics for watershed management. Environ. Monit. Assess. 103:83-98.
76. Moss, J.Q., G.E. Bell, M.A. Kizer, M.E. Payton, H.L. Zhang, and D.L. Martin. 2006. Reducing nutrient runoff from golf course fairways using grass buffer strips of multiple heights. Crop Sci. 46: 72-80.
77. Murphy, J.A. and D.E. Zaurov. 1994. Shoot and root growth response of perennial ryegrass to fertilizer placement depth. Agron. J. 86:828-832.
78. Nair, V.D., D.A. Graetz, and D.O. Dooley. 2003. Phosphorus release characteristics of manure and manure-impacted soils. Food Agr. Environ. 1:217-223.
79. Nielson, L. and C.L. Smith. 2005. Influences on residential yard care and water quality: Tualatin watershed, Oregon. J. Amer. Water Resources Assn. 41:93-106.
80. Obreza, T.A. and J.B. Sartain. 2010. Improving nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizer use efficiency for Florida's horticultural crops. HortTechnology 20:23-32.
81. Osmond, D.L. and D.H. Hardy. 2004. Characterization of turf practices in five North Carolina communities. J. Environ. Qual. 33:565-575.
82. Pare, K., M.H. Chantigny, K. Carey, W.J. Johnston, and J. Dionne. 2006. Nitrogen uptake and leaching under annual bluegrass ecotypes and bentgrass species: A lysimeter experiment. Crop Sci. 46:847-853.
83. Petrovic, A.M. 1990. The fate of nitrogenous fertilizers applied to turfgrass. J. Environ. Qual. 19:1-14.
84. Petrovic, A.M. and Z.M. Easton. 2005. The role of turfgrass management in the water quality of urban environments. Intl. Turfgrass Soc. Res. J. 10:55-69.
85. Qian, Y.L., W. Bandaranayake, W.J. Parton, B. Mecham, M.A. Harivandi, and A.R. Mosier. 2003. Long-termeffects of clipping and nitrogen management in turfgrass on soil organic carbon and nitrogen dynamics. J. Environ. Qual. 32:1694-1700.
86. Robbins, P., A. Polderman, and T. Birkenholtz. 2001. Lawns and toxins: An ecology of the city. Cities 18:369-380.
87. Robbins, P. and J.T. Sharp. 2003. Producing and consuming chemicals: The moral economy of the American lawn. Econ. Geogr. 79:425-451.
88. Robbins, P. and T. Birkenholtz. 2003. Turfgrass revolution: Measuring the expansion of the American lawn. Land Use Policy 20:181-194.
89. Rosen, C.J. and B.P. Horgan. 2005. Regulation of phosphorus fertilizer application to turf in Minnesota: Historical perspective and opportunities for research and education. Intl. Turfgrass Soc. Res. J. 10:130-135.
90. Sartain, J.B. 1981. Effectiveness of slowrelease N fertilizers in maintaining turfgrass quality and growth. Proc. Florida State Hort. Soc. 94:227-229.
91. Sartain, J.B. 1992. Relative nitrogen leaching losses from selected slow-release N sources, p.131-136. In: T.E. Freeman (ed.). Turfgrass research in Florida. University of Florida, Gainesville.
92. Sartain, J.B. 1995. Turfgrass fertilization through soil and tissue monitoring. Parks/Ground Maintenance 48:7-9.
93. Sartain, J.B. 1996. The fate of applied turfgrass nutrients. Grounds Maintenance 31:26-30.
94. Sartain, J.B. 2007. General Recommendations for Fertilization of Turfgrasses on Florida Soils. Univ. Florida Coop. Ext. Serv. Circ. SL 31. 8 Apr. 2012. .
95. Schueler, T. 2010. The clipping point: Turf cover estimates for the Chesapeake Bay watershed and management implications. CSN Technical Bulletin No. 8. Chesapeake Stormwater Network, Baltimore.
96. Schwartz, L. and L.M. Shuman. 2005. Predicting runoff and associated nitrogen losses from turfgrass using the root zone water quality model (RZWQM). J. Environ. Qual. 34:350-358.
97. Shober, A.L., G.C. Denny, and T.K. Broschat. 2010. Management of fertilizers and water for ornamental plants in urban landscapes: Current practices and impacts on water resources in Florida. HortTechnology 20:94-106.
98. Shuman, L.M. 2001. Phosphate and nitrate movement through simulated golf greens. Water Air Soil Pollut. 129:305-318.
99. Shuman, L.M. 2002. Phosphorus and nitrate nitrogen in runoff following fertilizer application to turfgrass. J. Environ. Qual. 31:1710-1715.
100. Shuman, L.M. 2004. Runoff of nitrate nitrogen and phosphorus from turfgrass after watering-in. Commun. Soil Sci. Plant Anal. 35:9-24.
101. Sims, J.T., R.R. Simard, and B.C. Joern. 1998. Phosphorus loss in agricultural drainage: Historical perspective and current research. J. Environ. Qual. 27:277-293.
102. Skogley, L.R. and J.W. King. 1968. Controlled-release nitrogen fertilization of turfgrass. Agron. J. 60:61-64.
103. Snyder, G.H., B.J. Augustin, and J.M. Davidson. 1984. Moisture sensor-controlled irrigation for reducing N leaching in bermudagrass turf. Agron. J. 76:964-969.
104. Soldat, D.J. and A.M. Petrovic. 2008. The fate and transport of phosphorus in turfgrass ecosystems. Crop Sci. 48:2051-2065.
105. Souto, L., M. Collins, D. Barr, G. Milch, J. Reed, and M.D. Ritner. 2009. Wekiva residential fertilizer practices. Florida Department of Environmental Protection, Tallahassee.
106. Spangenberg, B.G., T.W. Fermanian, and D.J. Wehner. 1986. Evaluation of liquidapplied nitrogen fertilizers on kentucky bluegrass turf. Agron. J. 78:1002-1006.
107. Starr, J.L. and H.C. DeRoo. 1981. The fate of nitrogen applied to turfgrass. Crop Sci. 21:531-536.
108. State of Florida. 2007. 5E-1.003. Florida Administrative Code. Labeling Requirements for Urban Turf Fertilizers. 13 Dec. 2010. .
109. Steinke, K. and J.C. Stier. 2003. Nitrogen selection and growth regulator applications for improving shaded turf performance. Crop Sci. 43:1399-1406.
110. Steinke, K., J.C. Stier, W.R. Kussow, and A. Thompson. 2007. Prairie and turf buffer strips for controlling runoff from paved surfaces. J. Environ. Qual. 36:426-439.
111. Tampa Bay Estuary Program. 2008. Final report from the workgroup to develop residential fertilizer use guidelines for the Tampa Bay region. Tampa Bay Estuary Program, St. Petersburg, FL.
112. Totten, F.W., H. Liu, L.B. McCarty, C.M. Baldwin, D.G. Bielenberg, and J.E. Toler. 2008. Efficiency of foliar versus granular fertilization: A field study of creeping bentgrass performance. J. Plant Nutr. 31:972-982.
113. Trenholm, L.E., A.E. Dudeck, J.B. Sartain, and J.L. Cisar. 1998. Bermudagrass growth, total nonstructural carbohydrate concentration, and quality as influenced by nitrogen and potassium. Crop Sci. 38:168-174.
114. Trenholm, L.E. and J.B. Unruh. 2005. Warm-season turfgrass response to fertilizer rates and sources. J. Plant Nutr. 28:991-999.
115. Troy, A.R., J.M. Grove, J.P.M. O'Neil-Dunne, S.T.A. Pickett, and M.L. Cadenasso. 2007. Predicting opportunities for greening and patterns of vegetation on private urban lands. Environ. Mgt. 40:394-412.
116. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1999. Background report on fertilizer use, contaminants and regulations. U.S. Environ. Protection Agency, Natl. Program Chem. Div., Office Pollution Prevention Toxics, Washington, DC.
117. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2005. National management measures to control nonpoint source pollution from urban areas. U.S. Environ. Protection Agency, Washington, DC.
118. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2010. Impaired Waters and Total MaximumDaily Loads. 27 Apr. 2012. .
119. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2012.Water:Nonpoint water success stories. Roberts Bay: Retrofits in Bay result in removal of nutrient impairment. U.S. Environ. Protection Agency, Washington, DC.
120. Varlamoff, S., W.J. Florkowski, J.L. Jordan, J. Latimer, and K. Braman. 2001. Georgia homeowner survey of landscape management practices. HortTechnology 11:326-331.
121. Vietor, D.M., T.L. Provin, R.H. White, and C.L. Munster. 2004. Runoff losses of phosphorus and nitrogen imported in sod or composted manure for turf establishment. J. Environ. Qual. 33:358-366.
122. Waddington, D.V. and J.M. Duich. 1976. Evaluation of slow-release nitrogen fertilizers on Pennpar creeping bentgrass. Agron. J. 68:812-815.
123. Wehner, D.J. and J.E. Haley. 1993. Effects of late fall fertilization on turfgrass as influenced by application timing and N source. Intl. Turfgrass Soc. Res. J. 7:580-586.
124. Wherley, B.G., W. Shi, D.C. Bowman, and T.W. Rufty. 2009. Fate of 15Nnitrate applied to a bermudagrass system: Assimilation profiles in different seasons. Crop Sci. 49:2291-2301.
125. Zhou, W., A. Troy, J.M. Grove, and J.C. Jenkins. 2009. Can money buy green? Demographic and socioeconomic predictors of lawn-care expenditures and lawn greenness in urban residential areas. Soc. Nat. Resources 22:744-760.