How and why race continues to influence the administration of criminal justice in Louisiana

Louisiana Law Review

Volumn 72, Issue 2, 2012, Pages 361-408

  Smith, Robert J ^a   Sarma, Bidish J ^a  

^a NONE

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 84863171970     PISSN: 00246859     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (171)

1. See U.S. CENSUS BUREAU, State & County QuickFacts: Jefferson Parish, LA, http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/22/22051.html (last visited Oct. 13, 2011).
2. see also RICHARD BOURKE, JOE HINGSTON & JOEL DEVINE, LA. CRISIS ASSISTANCE CTR., BLACK STRIKES: A STUDY OF THE RACIALLY DISPARATE USE OF PEREMPTORY CHALLENGES BY THE JEFFERSON PARISH DISTRICT ATTORNEY'S OFFICE (2003), available at http://www.blackstrikes.com/resources/report/black-strikes-report- september-2003.doc.
3. See State v. Snyder, 942 So. 2d 484, 498-99 (La. 2006).
4. Snyder v. Louisiana, 552 U.S. 472 (2008).
5. See Smith v. United States, 502 U.S. 1017, 1020 n. (1991).
6. See, e.g., LA. DEP'T OF PUBLIC SAFETY AND CORRECTIONS, CORRECTIONS SERVICES, Fact Sheet: Demographic Profiles of the Adult Correctional Population (June 30, 2011), available at http://www.corrections. state.la.us/wp-content/ uploads/stats/2a.pdf.
7. See, e.g., Glenn L. Pierce & Michael L. Radelet, Death-Sentencing in East Baton Rouge Parish, 1990-2008, 71 LA. L. REV. 647 (2011).
8. See, e.g., Snyder v. Louisiana, 552 U.S. 472 (2008).
9. See, e.g., INT'L CENTRE FOR PRISON STUDIES, Entire World-Prison Population Rates per 100,000 of the national population, http://www. prisonstudies.org/info/worldbrief/wpb-stats.php?area=all&category= wb-poprate (last visited Oct. 12 , 2011).
10. NICOLE D. PORTER, THE SENTENCING PROJECT, THE STATE OF SENTENCING 2010: DEVELOPMENTS IN POLICY AND PRACTICE 1 (Feb. 2011), http://sentencingproject.org/ doc/publications/publications/Final%20State%20ofyo20the%20Sentencing%202010.pdf.
11. See David Crary, Study: Louisiana Has the Highest Incarceration Rate, ASSOCIATED PRESS (Mar. 18, 2008), available at http://www. pachiefprobationofFicers.org/docs/panews3-28-8.pdf.
12. PEW CENTER ON THE STATES, ONE IN 31: THE LONG REACH OF AMERICAN CORRECTIONS tbl. A-4 (Mar. 2009), http://www.pewcenteronthe states.org/ uploadedFiles/PSPP-lin3l-report-FINAL-WEB-3-26-09.pdf.
13. NAT'L PRISON PROJECT OF THE ACLU, ABANDONED AND ABUSED: ORLEANS PARISH PRISONERS IN THE WAKE OF HURRICANE KATRINA 13 (2006), http://www.aclu.org/pdfs/ prison/oppreport20060809.pdf.
14. See William Arp III & Berlisha Morton, A Political History and Analysis of Disenfranchisement and Restoration of the Black Vote in Louisiana, 29 W.J. BLACK STUD. 629, 630 (2005) ("More than 72.9% of the incarcerated in Louisiana are Black, 26.9% are Whites, and 0.2 % represents the 'Other' category.").
15. U.S. CENSUS BUREAU, State & County QuickFacts: Louisiana, http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/22000.html (last visited Oct. 24,2011).
16. See, e.g., Bruce Eggler, Bridge Blockade After Katrina Remains Divisive Issue, THE TIMES-PICAYUNE, Sept. 1, 2007, available at http://blog.nola.com/ times-picayune/2007/09bridge-blockade-afterjcatrina.html ("Not only did the blockade spawn state and federal investigations and five lawsuits targeting Gretna, its police force, Lawson, Jefferson Parish Sheriff Harry Lee and other law enforcement agencies, the episode vaulted the New Orleans area's historical struggle with race and class onto an international stage.").
17. See, e.g., John Burnett, Larger-Than-Life Sheriff Rules Louisiana Parish, NPR, Nov. 28, 2006, http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId= 6549329.
18. U.S. DEP'T OF JUSTICE CIVIL RIGHTS DIVISION, INVESTIGATION OF THE NEW ORLEANS POLICE DEPARTMENT 35, 32 (Mar. 16, 2011), available at http://www.justice.gov/crt/about/spl/nopd-report.pdf.
19. LA. DEP'T OF PUBLIC SAFETY AND CORRECTIONS, CORRECTIONS SERVICES, Fact Sheet: Demographic Profiles of the Adult Correctional Population (30 June 2011), available at http://www.corrections.state.la.us/wpcontent/uploads/stats/2a.pdf.
20. James Austin, Wendy Ware, & Roger Ocker, Orleans Parish Prison Ten-Year Inmate Population Projection tbl. 13 (Nov. 2010), www.ncjrs.gov/ pdffilesl/nij/grants/233722.pdf (showing that drug possession represents 3.8%, drug sales represent 8.7%, theft, fraud and forgery represent 4.7%, "other property" represents 1.6%, and "other nonviolent" offenses represent 26.7%).
21. SUBSTANCE ABUSE AND MENTAL HEALTH SERVICES ADMINISTRATION, U.S. DEP'T OF HEALTH AND HUMAN SERVICES, RESULTS FROM THE 2008 NATIONAL SURVEY ON DRUG USE AND HEALTH: NATIONAL FINDINGS 2 5 (2009), http://www.oas.samhsa.gov/nsduh/2k8nsduh/ 2k8Results.pdf.
22. HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH, DECADES OF DISPARITY: DRUG ARRESTS AND RACE IN THE UNITED STATES 16 (Mar. 2009), http://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/ us0309web-l.pdf.
23. see LA. REV. STAT. ANN. § 18:177(A) (2004), the task of restoring the right to vote in practice is much more difficult than the law's text suggests.
24. See, e.g., Traci Burch, Turnout and Party Registration among Criminal Offenders in the 2008 General Election, 45 LAW & SOC'Y REV. 699, 707 (2011)
25. See, e.g., Craig Haney & Philip Zimbardo, The Past and Future of U.S. Prison Policy: Twenty-Five Years After the Stanford Prison Experiment, 53 AM. PSYCHOL. 709,716(1998).
26. See CRIMINAL JUSTICE PROJECT OF THE NAACP LEGAL DEFENSE FUND, DEATH Row U.S.A. 35 (Winter 2010), http://www.deathpenaltyinfo.org/documents/DRUSA-Winter- 2010.pdf.
27. see also LOUISIANA DEP'T OF PUBLIC SAFETY AND CORRECTIONS, CORRECTIONS SERVICES, Fact Sheet: Demographic Profiles of the Death Row Correctional Population (30 June 2011), available at http://www.corrections.state.la.us/wp- content/uploads/stats/2d.pdf.
28. Tim Lyman, Comparing Homicides to Capital Cases Caddo Parish, 1988-2008 (2011) (unpublished comment), available at http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers. cfm?abstract-id=l743712.
29. See, e.g., Snyder v. Louisiana, 552 U.S. 472, 475-76 (2008) (all-white jury).
30. EQUAL JUSTICE INITIATIVE, ILLEGAL RACIAL DISCRIMINATION IN JURY SELECTION: A CONTINUING LEGACY 5 (Aug. 2010) , http://www.law.berkeley.edu/ files/IllegalRacialDiscriminationJurySelection.pdf [hereinafter ILLEGAL RACIAL DISCRIMINATION].
31. See LA. CODE CRIM. PROC. ANN. art. 401(A)(1) (Supp. 2011) (requiring residency).
32. See LA. CODE CRIM. PROC. ANN. art. 783 (B) (2003) (allowing jurors suffering hardship to be excused at the trial court's discretion).
33. See LA. CODE CRIM. PROC. ANN. art. 401(A) (5) (Supp. 2011).
34. See generally Paula Hannaford-Agor, Systematic Negligence in Jury Operations: Why the Definition of Systematic Exclusion in Fair Cross Section Claims Must Be Expanded, 59 DRAKE L. REV. 761, 772-777 (2011).
35. See, e.g., Lydia Saad & Frank Newport, Blacks and Whites Differ About Treatment of Blacks in America Today, GALLUP NEWS SERVICE 58 (July 6, 2001), http://www.gallup.com/poll/4585/blacks-whites-differ-about-treatmentblacks- america-today.aspx.
36. See, e.g., Abigail Thernstrom & Stephan Thernstrom, Editorial, Racial Gerrymandering Is Unnecessary, WALL ST. J., Nov. 11, 2008, at A15 (suggesting "the doors of electoral opportunity in America are open to all").
37. Alex Spillius, Is Bobby Jindal Presidential Material?, THE TELEGRAPH, May 5, 2008, http://blogs.telegraph.co.uk/news/alexspillius/3934721/Is-Bobby- Jindal-presidential-material.
38. See, e.g., Eric Hahman et al., Evaluations of Presidential Performance: Race, Prejudice, and Perceptions of Americanism, 47 J. EXPERIMENTAL Soc. PSYCHOL. 430 (2011).
39. Leonard Pitts Jr., Birther Debate Has Racist Undercurrent, MIAMI HERALD, Mar. 31, 2011 (decrying the debate as "profoundly racist claptrap").
40. Keshni Kashyap, The Bobby Jindal Racism Issue, THE DAILY BEAST (Mar. 4, 2009), http://www.thedailybeast.com/blogs-and-stories/2009-03-04/the-bobby- jindal-racism-puzzle/.
41. Billy Sothern, Bobby Jindal: Not Much to Celebrate, THE NATION, Oct. 29, 2007, available at: http://www.thenation.com/article/bobby-jindal-notmuch- celebrate.
42. See generally Gordon Bazemore & Jeanne B. Stinchcomb, Civic Engagement and Reintegration: Toward a Community-Focused Theory and Practice, 36 COLUM. HUM. RTS. L. REV. 241 (2004).
43. See generally Adrienne Lyles-Chockley, Transitions to Justice: Prisoner Reentry as an Opportunity to Confront and Counteract Racism, 6 HASTINGS RACE & POVERTY L.J. 259 (2009).
44. But see Ralph Richard Banks & Richard Thompson Ford, (How) Does Unconscious Bias Matter: Law, Politics, and Racial Inequality, 58 EMORY L.J. 1053, 1068.
45. B. Keith Payne et al., Why Do Implicit and Explicit Attitude Tests Diverge? The Role of Structural Fit, 94 J. PERSONALITY AND SOC. PSYCHOL. 16-31 (2008)
46. Taylor v. Louisiana, 419 U.S. 522, 530 (1975).
47. See also Peters v. Kiff, 407 U.S. 493, 503 (1972) ("When any large and identifiable segment of the community is excluded from jury service, the effect is to remove from the jury room qualities of human nature and varieties of human experience, the range of which is unknown and perhaps unknowable.")
48. see generally Nijole Benokraitis, Racial Exclusion in Juries, 18 J. APPLIED BEHAV. SCI. 2 9 (1982).
49. McDonald v. Chicago, 130 S.Ct. 3020, 3060 (2010).
50. see CHARLES LANE, THE DAY FREEDOM DIED: THE COLFAX MASSACRE, THE SUPREME COURT, AND THE BETRAYAL OF RECONSTRUCTION (2008).
51. Sonja R. West, No Civilized System of Justice, 11 GREEN BAG 2d 521, 526 (2008)
52. United States v. Cruikshank, 92 U.S. 542, 554-555 (1876).
53. See, e.g., Eugene Gressman, The Unhappy History of Civil Rights Legislation, 50 MICH. L. REV. 1323, 1339-1340 (1952).
54. Wilson R. Huhn, The Legacy of Slaughterhouse, Bradwell, and Cruikshank in Constitutional Interpretation, 42 AKRON L. REV. 1051, 1079-1080 (2009).
55. United States v. Louisiana, 225 F.Supp. 353, 366-368 (E.D. La. 1963) (footnotes omitted).
56. Theodore B. Olson, The Supreme Court & the Presidency, 9 GREEN BAG 2d 139, 145 (2006) ("The disputed election of 1876 had almost led to another civil war.").
57. See, e.g., Richard H. Pildes, The Canon(s) of Constitutional Law: Democracy, Anti-Democracy, and the Canon, 17 CONST. COMMENT. 295, 303 (2000).
58. United States v. Louisiana, 225 F. Supp. at 371 (internal quotations and citations omitted).
59. Future of the Freedman, DAILY PICAYUNE, Aug. 31, 1873, at 5.
60. See The Present Jury System, DAILY PICAYUNE, Apr. 20, 1870, at 4.
61. see also Female Suffrage, DAILY PICAYUNE, May 8, 1879, at 4.
62. See The Present Jury System, THE DAILY PICAYUNE, Apr. 20, 1870, at 4
63. See, e.g., C.J. Lin, Metairie Woman Says She Voted to Convict CMurder to End 'Brutal' Jury Deliberations, TIMES-PICA YUNE, Aug. 26, 2009 [hereinafter Brutal Deliberations], available at: http://www.nola.com/crime/index.ssf/2009/ 08/metairie-woman-says-she-vocted.html.
64. see also C.J. Lin, C-Murder Guilty of Second-Degree Murder After Topsy-Turvy Jury Action, TLMES-PlCAYUNE, Aug. 11, 2009, available at: http://www.nola.com/news/index.ssC2009/08/cmurder-verdict-l.html.
65. Annette Siseo, How Verdict Policy Hurts Black Defendants, TLMESPICAYUNE, Aug. 27, 2009, available at http://blog.nola.com/jamesgill/2009/08/how-verdict- policy-hurts-black.html.
66. Annette Siseo, 10-2 Jury Close Enough for Louisiana, TLMESPICAYUNE, Aug. 15, 2009, available at http://blog.nola.com/jamesgill/2009/08/102Jury-close- enough-for-loui.html.
67. See Johnson v. Louisiana, 406 U.S. 356, 360 (1972) (plurality opinion).
68. See REID HASTIE ET AL., INSIDE THE JURY 6 0 tbl.4.1 (1983).
69. See Kim Taylor-Thompson, Empty Votes in Jury Deliberations, 113 HARV. L. REV. 1261, 1272-1273 (2000).
70. AM. JURY PROJECT, AM. BAR ASS'N, PRINCIPLES FOR JURIES AND JURY TRIALS 24, available at http://www.american bar.org/content/dam/aba/migrated/201l- build/american-jury/final-commentary-july-l205.authcheckdam.pdf.
71. See Dennis J. Devine et al., Jury Decision Making: 45 Years of Empirical Research on Deliberations, 7 PSYCHOL. PUB. POL'Y & L. 622, 669 (2001).
72. See, e.g., Shari Seidman Diamond et al., Revisiting the Unanimity Requirement: The Behavior of the Non-Unanimous Civil Jury, 100 Nw. U. L. REV. 201,230 (2006).
73. See Michael J. Saks, What Do Jury Experiments Tell Us About How Juries (Should) Make Decisions?, 6 S. CAL. INTERDISC. L.J. 1,41 (1997).
74. See, e.g., Hon. Janet Bond Arterton, Unconscious Bias and the Impartial Jury, 40 CONN. L. REV. 1023, 1028-1029 (2008).
75. See generally Leland Ware, Race and Urban Space: Hypersegregated Housing Patterns and the Failure of School Desegregation, 9 WLDENER L. SYMP. J. 55 (2002).
76. William H. Carter et al., Polarisation, Public Housing, and Racial Minorities in US Cities, 35 URBAN STUDIES 1889 (1998).
77. See e.g., DOUGLAS S. MASSEY & NANCY A. DENTON, AMERICAN APARTHEID: SEGREGATION AND THE MAKING OF THE UNDERCLASS 125-142 (1993).
78. WILLIAM JULIUS WILSON, THE TRULY DISADVANTAGED: THE INNER CITY, THE UNDERCLASS, AND PUBLIC POLICY 20-108 (1987).
79. RICHARD WRIGHT, NATIVE SON (1940).
80. Darnell M. Hunt, (Re)Affirming Race: "Reality," Negotiation, and the "Trial of the Century", 38 SOC. Q. 399, 400 (1997).
81. see also Richard Morin, Poll Reflects Division Over Simpson Case: Trial Damaged Image of Courts, Races Agree, WASH. POST, Oct. 8, 1995, at A31 (citing poll that found 55% of white Americans thought Simpson was guilty and 85% of African Americans thought he was innocent).
82. Leland Ware, Essays on Race Reach Beyond the Superficial, ST. LOUIS POST-DISPATCH, Feb. 18, 1996, at 5D ("[T]he reaction to the verdict proves, beyond any doubt, that white and black Americans view the same events from vastly different perspectives").
83. Russell Robinson, Perceptual Segregation, 108 COLUM. L. REV. 1093, 1100 (2008) (citing CBS News/New York Times O.J. Simpson Poll #2, July 1994) ("In 1994, a CBS News/New York Times poll found that roughly 40% of blacks, compared to 15% of whites, believed that the criminal justice system was biased against Simpson.").
84. Jennifer Crocker et al., Belief in U.S. Government Conspiracies Against Blacks Among Black and White College Students: Powerlessness or System Blame?, 25 PERSONALITY & SOC. PSYCHOL. BULL. 941, 946 app. A (1999)).
85. See, e.g., Sandra Guerra Thompson, Beyond a Reasonable Doubt? Reconsidering Uncorroborated Eyewitness Identification Testimony, 41 U.C. DAVIS L. REV. 1487, 1493 ("The phenomenon of unreliable cross-racial identifications is universally accepted as fact by psychologists.").
86. Matthew D Lieberman et al., An fMRI Investigation of Race-related Amygdala Activity in African-American and Caucasian-American Individuals, 8 NATURE NEUROSCIENCE 720, 722 (2005), available at http://www.scn.ucla.edu/pdf/ nature%20neuroscience%20press/nn1465.pdf (last visited October 19, 2011).
87. Sheri Lynn Johnson, Litigating for Racial Fairness After McCleskey v. Kemp, 3 9 CoLUM. HUMAN RIGHTS L. REV. 178, 193-194 (2007).
88. Justin Levinson, Forgotten Racial Equality: Implicit Bias, Decision Making, and Misremembering, 57 DUKE L.J. 345 (2007). On the strength and scope of implicit bias generally.
89. see Jerry Kang and Mahzarin Banaji, Fair Measures: a Behavioral Realist Revision of "Affirmative Action", 94 CAL. L. REV. 1063 (2006)
90. Ben Cohen & Robert J. Smith, The Racial Geography of the Federal Death Penalty, 85 WASH. L. REV. 425, n. 243 (2010).
91. see also Justin Levinson, Race, Death, and the Complicitous Mind, 58 DEPAUL L. REV. 599,614-615 (2009).
92. Justin D. Levinson & Danielle Young, Different Shades of Bias: Skin Tone, Implicit Racial Bias, and Judgments of Ambiguous Evidence, 112 W. VA. L. REV. 307 (2010).
93. see also R. Richard Banks, Jennifer L. Eberhardt, & Lee Ross, Discrimination and Implicit Bias in a Racially Unequal Society, 94 CALIF. L. REV. 1169, 1172 (2006) ("Psychologists have documented and explored the longstanding stereotype of African Americans as violent and prone to criminality. Indeed, this is the stereotype most commonly applied to Blacks- or at least to young Black males.").
94. see also State v. Cheatteam, 986 So. 2d 738, 745 (La. App. 5 Cir. 2008).
95. but see State v. Tart, 672 So. 2d 116, 141 (La. 1996).
96. Johnson v. Louisiana, 406 U.S. 356, 397 (Stewart, J., dissenting) (referring to a 9-3 decision rule).
97. See McCleskey v. Kemp, 481 U.S. 279, 344 (1987).
98. See Carol A. Chase & Colleen P. Graffy, A Challenge for Cause Against Peremptory Challenges in Criminal Proceedings, 19 LOY. L.A. INT'L & COMP. L.J. 507, 507(1997).
99. See Swain v. Alabama, 380 U.S. 202, 220 (1965) ('The essential nature of the peremptory challenge is that it is one exercised without a reason stated, without inquiry and without being subject to the court's control.").
100. See Batson v. Kentucky, 476 U.S. 79 (1976) (prohibiting strikes on the basis of race).
101. J.E.B. v. Alabama, 511 U.S. 127 (1994) (prohibiting strikes on the basis of gender).
102. See 4 WILLIAM BLACKSTONE, COMMENTARIES ON THE LAWS OF ENGLAND 347 (1769).
103. The Louisiana Capital Assistance Center was formerly named the Louisiana Crisis Assistance Center. See About the Louisiana Capital Assistance Center, THEJUSTICECENTER.ORG, http://www.thejusticecenter.org/lcac.
104. RICHARD BOURKE, JOE HINGSTON & JOEL DEVINE, LA. CRISIS ASSISTANCE CTR., BLACK STRIKES: A STUDY OF THE RACIALLY DISPARATE USE OF PEREMPTORY CHALLENGES BY THE JEFFERSON PARISH DISTRICT ATTORNEY'S OFFICE (2003), available at http://www.blackstrikes.com/resources/report/black-strikes-report-september- 2003.doc.
105. Bidish Sarma, An Enduring (and Disturbing) Legacy: Race-Neutrality, Judicial Apathy, and the Civic Exclusion of African-Americans in Louisiana, 1 HLRE 49, 56 n.30.
106. See Batson v. Kentucky, 476 U.S. 79, 96-98 (1976).
107. See Johnson v. California, 545 U.S. 162, 169-170 (2005).
108. See Purkett v. Elem, 514 U.S. 765, 767 (1995) (per curiam).
109. See, e.g., Miller-El v. Cockrell, 537 U.S. 322, 342 (2003) [hereinafter Miller-El 7] ("[T]he statistical evidence alone raises some debate as to whether the prosecution acted with a race-based reason when striking prospective jurors.").
110. see also State v. Jacobs, 32 So. 3d 227, 236-33 (La. 2010).
111. See State v. Collier, 553 So. 2d 815, 821 (La. 1989)
112. Miller-El v. Dretke, 545 U.S. 231, 240-241 (2005) [hereinafter Miller-El II\ (considering statistical evidence and comparative juror analysis in its step-three discussion).
113. McCleskey v. Kemp, 481 U.S. 279, 293.
114. State v. Coleman, 970 So. 2d 511 (La. 2007).
115. See Snyder v. Louisiana, 552 U.S. 472 (2008).
116. State v. Snyder, 750 So. 2d 832, 846 (La. 1999)
117. Snyder v. Louisiana, 552 U.S. 472 (2007) (No. 06-10119) available at a http://www.supremecourt.gov/oral-arguments/argument-transcripts/06-10119.pdf.
118. See Sheri L. Johnson, The Language and Culture (Not to Say Race) of Peremptory Challenges, 35 Wm. & MARY L. REV. 21, 59 (1993).
119. State v. Jacobs, 32 So. 3d 227, 234 (La. 2010) (per curiam).
120. See State v. Jacobs, 67 So. 3d 535 (La. Ct. App. 5th 2011) (rejecting remaining Batson claims on direct appeal).
121. See Record at 2578, 2665-66 State v. Miller, 2005-1111 (La. 3/10/06), 923 So. 2d 625 (La. 2006).
122. See, e.g., Peter A. Lyle, Note, Racial Profiling and the Fourth Amendment: Applying the Minority Victim Perspective to Ensure Equal Protection Under the Law, 21 B.C. THIRD WORLD L.J. 243, 246 (2001) ("This combined feeling of anger and dread still resonates deep within the heart of the black community. In fact, African Americans have endured an uneasy relationship with American law enforcement for decades.").
123. U.S. DEP'T OF JUSTICE CIVIL RIGHTS DIVISION, INVESTIGATION OF THE NEW ORLEANS POLICE DEPARTMENT, xix of Executive Summary (Mar. 16, 2011), available at http://www.justice.gov/crt/about/spl/nopd-report.pdf.
124. See DAVID A. HARRIS, AM. CIVIL LIBERTIES UNION, DRIVING WHILE BLACK: RACIAL PROFILING ON OUR NATION'S HIGHWAYS (1999), available at http://www.aclu.org/racial-justice/driving-while-black-racial-profiling-our- nations-highways.
125. see also Suzanne B. Goldberg, Discrimination by Comparison, 120 YALE L.J. 728, 795 (2011) (noting that "calling an African-American man a 'boy' can be racially derogatory").
126. Joe R. Feagin et al., The Many Costs of Discrimination: The Case of Middle Class African-Americans, 34 IND. L. REV. 1313, 1331 (2001).
127. see also Rod K. Brunson, "Police Don't Like Black People": African American Young Men's Accumulated Police Experiences, 6 CRIMINOLOGY & PUB. POL'Y 71, 74 (2007)
128. See U.S. DEP'T OF JUSTICE CIVIL RIGHTS DIVISION, INVESTIGATION OF THE NEW ORLEANS POLICE DEPARTMENT, xix of Executive Summary (Mar. 16, 2011), available at http://www.justice.gov/crt/about/spl/nopd-report.pdf
129. U.S. DEP'T OF JUSTICE CIVIL RIGHTS DIVISION, INVESTIGATION OF THE NEW ORLEANS POLICE DEPARTMENT 41 (Mar. 16, 2011), available at http://www.justice. gov/crt/about/spl/nopd-report.pdf
130. U.S. CENSUS BUREAU, State and County Quick Facts: Orleans Parish, Louisiana, http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/22/22071.html (last visited Oct. 13,2011).
131. U.S. DEP'T OF JUSTICE CIVIL RIGHTS DIVISION, INVESTIGATION OF THE NEW ORLEANS POLICE DEPARTMENT, V of Executive Summary (March 16, 2011), available at: http://www.justice.gov/crt/about/spl/nopd-report.pdf.
132. Batson v. Kentucky, 476 U.S. 79, 87 (1976).
133. Sameul R. Sommers, On Racial Diversity and Group Decision Making: Identifying Multiple Effects of Racial Composition on Jury Deliberations, 90 J. PERSONALITY AND Soc. PSYCHOL. 597-612 (2006), available at http://ase.tufts.edu/ psychology/documents/pubssommersonracialdiversity.pdf.
134. William J. Bowers et al., Crossing Racial Boundaries: A Closer Look At The Roots of Racial Bias in Capital Sentencing When the Defendant is Black and the Victim is White, 53 DEPAULL. REV. 1497, 1501 (2004).
135. William J. Bowers et al., Death-Sentencing in Black and White: An Empirical Analysis of the Role of Jurors ' Race and Jury Racial Composition, 3 U. PA. J. CONST. L. 171, 193 (2001).
136. Rick Seltzer et al., The Effect of Death-Qualification on the Propensity of Jurors to Convict: The Maryland Example, 29 HOW. L.J. 571, 573-74 (1986).
137. See, e.g., G. Ben Cohen & Robert J. Smith, The Death of Death- Qualification, 59 CASE W. RES. L. REV. 87 (2008).
138. Witherspoon v. Illinois, 391 U.S. 510, 522 (1968).
139. Uttecht v. Brown, 551 U.S. 1 (2007) (citing Wainwright v. Witt, 469 U.S. 412,424(1985)).
140. See Alicia Summers et al., Death Qualification as Systematic Exclusion of Jurors With Certain Religious and Other Characteristics, 40 J. APPLIED SOC. PSYCHOL. 3218 (2010).
141. See Melynda Price, Performing Discretion or Discrimination: Race, Ritual, and Peremptory Challenges in Capital Jury Selection, 15 MICH. J. RACE & L. 57, 103-04 (2009) ("[P]ersons who oppose the death penalty are not evenly distributed throughout the population. As a result, African Americans are more likely to be disqualified from service based on attitudes toward the death penalty.").
142. Robert Fitzgerald & Phoebe C. Ellsworth, Due Process vs. Crime Control: Death Qualification and Jury Attitudes, 8 L. & HUM. BEHAV. 31, 46 (1984) (finding that death-qualified juries are more likely to exclude women and African-American men).
143. U.S. CENSUS BUREAU, State & Country QuickFacts: Caddo Parish, Louisiana, http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/22/22017.html (last visited Oct. 24, 2011).
144. Roper v. Simmons, 543 U.S. 551, 616 (2005) (Scalia, J., dissenting) (internal quotation omitted).
145. see also Uttecht v. Brown, 551 U.S. 1, 35 (2007) (Stevens, J., dissenting)
146. Baze v. Rees, 553 U.S. 35, 84 (2008).
147. See Adam M. Clark, An Investigation of Death Qualification as a Violation of the Rights of Jurors, 24 BUFF. PUB. INT. L.J. 1, 49-50 (2006)
148. see also David C. Baldus et al., The Use of Peremptory Challenges in Capital Murder Trials: A Legal and Empirical Analysis, 3 U. PA. J. CONST. L. 3, 19 n.40 (2001).
149. Charles J. Ogletree, Black Man's Burden: Race and the Death Penalty in America, 81 OR. L. REV. 15 (2002).
150. See, e.g., Sarah A. Soule, Populism and Black Lynching in Georgia, 1890-1900, 71 Soc. F. 431, 431 (1992-1993).
151. James M. Inverarity, Populism and Lynching in Louisiana, 1889-1896: A Test of Erikson's Theory of the Relationship between Boundary Crises and Repressive Justice, 41 AM. SOC. REV. 262,263 tbl. 1 (1976).
152. See, e.g., Anthony V. Alfieri, Prosecuting the Jena Six, 93 CORNELL L. REV. 1285, 1292 (2008).
153. Joseph Kennedy, The Jena Six, Mass Incarceration, and the Remoralization of Civil Rights, 44 HARV. C.R.-C.L. L. REV. 477 (2009).
154. Jeannine Bell, The Hangman's Noose and the Lynch Mob: Hate Speech and the Jena Six, 44 HARV. C.R.-C.L. L. REV. 329, 329 (2009)
155. Reed Walters, Editorial, Justice in Jena, N.Y. TIMES (Sept. 26, 2007), http://www.nytimes.com/2007/09/26/opinion/26walters.htm.
156. Jeffrey Gettleman, Prosecutors' Morbid Neckties Stir Criticism, N.Y. TIMES, Jan. 5 , 2 0 0 3 , at A14.
157. See, e.g., Cecelia Trenicosta & William C. Collins, Death and Dixie: How the Courthouse Confederate Flag Influences Capital Cases in Louisiana, 27 HARV. J. ON RACIAL & ETHNIC JUST. 125 (2011), available at http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract-id=1734397.
158. Elizabeth Brondolo et al., Perceived Racism and Blood Pressure: A Review of the Literature and Conceptual and Methodological Critique, 25 ANNALS OF BEHAVIORAL MEDICINE 61 (2003).
159. Richard Delgado & Jean Stefanic, Four Observations About Hate Speech, 44 WAKE FOREST L. REV. 353, 367 (2009).
160. Powers v. Ohio, 499 U.S. 400,424 (1991).
161. Jerry Kang & Kristin Lane, Seeing Through Colorblindness: Implicit Bias and the Law, 58 UCLA L. REV. 465, n.37 (2010).
162. Alessio Avenanti, Racial Bias Reduces Empathie Sensorimotor Resonance with Other Race Pain, 20 CURRENT BIOLOGY 1018 (2010), available at http://www.alessioavenanti.com/pdf-library/Avenanti-2010CurrBiol-MainText.pdf.
163. Georgia v. McCollum, 505 U.S. 42, 61 (1992).
164. See e.g. Jennifer L. Eberhardt et al., Seeing Black: Race, Crime, and Visual Processing. 87 J. PERSONALITY & SOC. PSYCHOL. 6 (2004).
165. Philip A. Goff et al., Not Yet Human: Implicit Knowledge, Historical Dehumanization, and Contemporary Consequences, 94 J. PERSONALITY & Soc. PSYCHOL. 292, 306 (2008).
166. State v. Wilson, 404 So.2d 968, 969 (La. 1981 ).
167. People v. Martinez, 377 N.E.2d 1222, 1229 (111. Ct. App. 1978).
168. People v. Garreau, 189 N.E.2d 287, 391 (111. 1963).
169. State v. Harris, 820 So. 2d 471 (La. 2002).
170. Accord Carachuri-Rosendo v. Holder, 130 S. Ct. 2577, 2586 (2010)
171. See State v. Jacobs, 904 So. 2d 82, 91 (2005).