Burden of HIV among female sex workers in low-income and middle-income countries: A systematic review and meta-analysis

The Lancet Infectious Diseases

Volumn 12, Issue 7, 2012, Pages 538-549

  Baral, Stefan ^a   Beyrer, Chris ^a   Muessig, Kathryn ^a   Poteat, Tonia ^a   Wirtz, Andrea L ^a   Decker, Michele R ^a   Sherman, Susan G ^a   Kerrigan, Deanna ^a  

^a JOHNS HOPKINS BLOOMBERG SCHOOL OF PUBLIC HEALTH   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; HUMAN; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS INFECTION; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS PREVALENCE; INFECTION RISK; LOWEST INCOME GROUP; META ANALYSIS; MIDDLE INCOME COUNTRY; MORBIDITY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROSTITUTION; SOCIAL STATUS; SYSTEMATIC REVIEW; VIRUS LOAD;

AFRICA; ASIA; DEVELOPING COUNTRIES; EUROPE, EASTERN; FEMALE; HIV INFECTIONS; HUMANS; LATIN AMERICA; PREVALENCE; SEX WORKERS;

EID: 84862768950     PISSN: 14733099     EISSN: 14744457     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/S1473-3099(12)70066-X     Document Type: Article

References (163)

1. Global HIV/AIDS Response: epidemic update and health sector progress towards universal access 2011, UNAIDS, United Nations, Geneva.
2. UNAIDS report on the global AIDS epidemic: 2010 2010, UNAIDS, United Nations, Geneva.
3. Mathers BM, Degenhardt L, Ali H, et al. HIV prevention, treatment, and care services for people who inject drugs: a systematic review of global, regional, and national coverage. Lancet 2010, 375:1014-1028.
4. Baral S, Sifakis F, Cleghorn F, Beyrer C Elevated risk for HIV infection among men who have sex with men in low- and middle-income countries 2000-2006: a systematic review. PLoS Med 2007, 4:e339.
5. Beyrer C, Wirtz A, Walker D, Johns B, Sifakis F, Baral S The global HIV epidemics among men who have sex with men: epidemiology, prevention, access to care and human rights 2011, World Bank Publications, Washington DC.
6. Beyrer C, Baral SD, Walker D, Wirtz AL, Johns B, Sifakis F The expanding epidemics of HIV type 1 among men who have sex with men in low- and middle-income countries: diversity and consistency. Epidemiol Rev 2010, 32:137-151.
7. UNAIDS guidance note on HIV and sex work 2009, UNAIDS, World Health Organization, Geneva.
8. Harcourt C, Donovan B The many faces of sex work. Sex Transm Infect 2005, 81:201-206.
9. Men who sell sex: international perspectives on male prostitution and HIV/AIDS 1999, Temple University Press, Philadelphia. P. Aggleton (Ed.).
10. Watts C, Zimmerman C, Foss AM, Hossain M, Cox A, Vickerman P Remodelling core group theory: the role of sustaining populations in HIV transmission. Sex Transm Infect 2010, 86(suppl 3):iii85-iii92.
11. Kilmarx PH Global epidemiology of HIV. Curr Opin HIV AIDS 2009, 4:240-246.
12. Cwikel JG, Lazer T, Press F, Lazer S Sexually transmissible infections among female sex workers: an international review with an emphasis on hard-to-access populations. Sex Health 2008, 5:9-16.
13. Cohen MS Sexually transmitted diseases enhance HIV transmission: no longer a hypothesis. Lancet 1998, 351(suppl 3):5-7.
14. Chacham AS, Diniz SG, Maia MB, Galati AF, Mirim LA Sexual and reproductive health needs of sex workers: two feminist projects in Brazil. Reprod Health Matters 2007, 15:108-118.
15. Decker MR, McCauley HL, Phuengsamran D, Janyam S, Silverman JG Sex trafficking, sexual risk, sexually transmitted infection and reproductive health among female sex workers in Thailand. J Epidemiol Community Health 2011, 65:334-339.
16. Swain SN, Saggurti N, Battala M, Verma RK, Jain AK Experience of violence and adverse reproductive health outcomes, HIV risks among mobile female sex workers in India. BMC Public Health 2011, 11:357.
17. Medhi GK, Mahanta J, Paranjape RS, Adhikary R, Laskar N, Ngully P Factors associated with HIV among female sex workers in a high HIV prevalent state of India. AIDS Care 2012, 24:369-376.
18. Strathdee SA, Philbin MM, Semple SJ, Pu M, Orozovich P, Martinez G, et al. Correlates of injection drug use among female sex workers in two Mexico-U.S. border cities. Drug Alcohol Depend 2008, 92:132-140.
19. Tuan NA, Fylkesnes K, Thang BD, et al. Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection patterns and risk behaviours in different population groups and provinces in Viet Nam. Bull World Health Organ 2007, 85:35-41.
20. Chakrapani V, Newman PA, Shunmugam M, Kurian AK, Dubrow R Barriers to free antiretroviral treatment access for female sex workers in Chennai, India. AIDS Patient Care STDs 2009, 23:973-980.
21. Rosenheck R, Ngilangwa D, Manongi R, Kapiga S Treatment-seeking behavior for sexually transmitted infections in a high-risk population. AIDS Care 2010, 22:1350-1358.
22. Argento E, Reza-Paul S, Lorway R, et al. Confronting structural violence in sex work: lessons from a community-led HIV prevention project in Mysore, India. AIDS Care 2011, 23:69-74.
23. Simic M, Rhodes T Violence, dignity and HIV vulnerability: street sex work in Serbia. Sociol Health Illn 2009, 31:1-16.
24. Onyeneho NG HIV/AIDS risk factors and economic empowerment needs of female sex workers in Enugu Urban, Nigeria. Tanzania J Health Res 2009, 11:126-135.
25. Udoh IA, Mantell JE, Sandfort T, Eighmy MA Potential pathways to HIV/AIDS transmission in the Niger Delta of Nigeria: poverty, migration and commercial sex. AIDS Care 2009, 21:567-574.
26. Nhurod P, Bollen LJ, Smutraprapoot P, et al. Access to HIV testing for sex workers in Bangkok, Thailand: a high prevalence of HIV among street-based sex workers. Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health 2010, 41:153-162.
27. Yang C, Latkin C, Luan R, Nelson K Condom use with female sex workers among male clients in Sichuan Province, China: the role of interpersonal and venue-level factors. Bull NY Acad Med 2010, 87:292-303.
28. Sirotin N, Strathdee SA, Lozada R, et al. Effects of government registration on unprotected sex amongst female sex workers in Tijuana; Mexico. Int J Drug Policy 2010, 21:466-470.
29. Erausquin JT, Reed E, Blankenship KM Police-related experiences and hiv risk among female sex workers in Andhra Pradesh, India. J Infect Dis 2011, 204(suppl 5):S1223-S1228.
30. Enabling legal environments for effective HIV responses: a leadership challenge for the Commonwealth International HIV/AIDS Alliance CHaAAG, (accessed March 6, 2012). http://www.aidsalliance.org/includes/Publication/Enabling-legal-environments-for-effective-HIV-responses.pdf.
31. Reza-Paul S, Beattie T, Syed HU, et al. Declines in risk behaviour and sexually transmitted infection prevalence following a community-led HIV preventive intervention among female sex workers in Mysore, India. AIDS 2008, 22(suppl 5):S91-100.
32. Shannon K, Kerr T, Allinott S, Chettiar J, Shoveller J, Tyndall MW Social and structural violence and power relations in mitigating HIV risk of drug-using women in survival sex work. Soc Sci Med 2008, 66:911-921.
33. Kerrigan D, Ellen JM, Moreno L, et al. Environmental-structural factors significantly associated with consistent condom use among female sex workers in the Dominican Republic. AIDS 2003, 17:415-423.
34. Sweat M, Kerrigan D, Moreno L, et al. Cost-effectiveness of environmental-structural communication interventions for HIV prevention in the female sex industry in the Dominican Republic. J Health Commun 2006, 11(suppl 2):123-142.
35. Ghose T, Swendeman D, George S, Chowdhury D Mobilizing collective identity to reduce HIV risk among sex workers in Sonagachi, India: the boundaries, consciousness, negotiation framework. Soc Sci Med 2008, 67:311-320.
36. Preventing HIV in developing countries: biomedical and behavioral approaches 2002, Kluwer Academic Publishers, New York. L. Gibney, R. DiClemente, S. Vermund (Eds.).
37. Odek WO, Busza J, Morris CN, Cleland J, Ngugi EN, Ferguson AG Effects of micro-enterprise services on HIV risk behaviour among female sex workers in Kenya's urban slums. AIDS Behav 2009, 13:449-461.
38. Halperin DT, de Moya EA, Perez-Then E, Pappas G, Garcia Calleja JM Understanding the HIV epidemic in the Dominican Republic: a prevention success story in the Caribbean?. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2009, 51(suppl 1):52-59.
39. Malta M, Magnanini MM, Mello MB, Pascom AR, Linhares Y, Bastos FI HIV prevalence among female sex workers, drug users and men who have sex with men in Brazil: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Public Health 2010, 10:317.
40. Scorgie F, Chersich MF, Ntaganira I, Gerbase A, Lule F, Lo YR Socio-demographic characteristics and behavioral risk factors of female sex workers in sub-saharan africa: a systematic review. AIDS Behav 2011, published online July 14. 10.1007/s10461-011-9985-z.
41. Poon AN, Li Z, Wang N, Hong Y Review of HIV and other sexually transmitted infections among female sex workers in China. AIDS Care 2011, 23(suppl 1):5-25.
42. Vandepitte J, Lyerla R, Dallabetta G, Crabbe F, Alary M, Buve A Estimates of the number of female sex workers in different regions of the world. Sex Transm Infect 2006, 82(suppl 3):iii18-iii25.
43. Emmanuel F, Blanchard J, Zaheer HA, Reza T, Holte-Mckenzie M The HIV/AIDS surveillance project mapping approach: an innovative approach for mapping and size estimation for groups at a higher risk of HIV in Pakistan. AIDS 2010, 24(suppl 2):S77-S84.
44. Vuylsteke B, Vandenhoudt H, Langat L, et al. Capture recapture for estimating the size of the female sex worker population in three cities in Cote d'Ivoire and in Kisumu, western Kenya. Trop Med Int Health 2010, 15:1537-1543.
45. Ahoyo AB, Alary M, Meda H, et al. Female sex workers in Benin, 2002. Behavioural survey and HIV and other STI screening. Cahiers Sante 2007, 17:143-151.
46. Zhang D, Wang L, Lv F, et al. Advantages and challenges of using census and multiplier methods to estimate the number of female sex workers in a Chinese city. AIDS Care 2007, 19:17-19.
47. Talbott JR Size matters: the number of prostitutes and the global HIV/AIDS pandemic. PLOS One 2007, 2:e543.
48. Todd CS, Nasir A, Stanekzai MR, et al. HIV, hepatitis B, and hepatitis C prevalence and associated risk behaviors among female sex workers in three Afghan cities. (Special Issue: Progress in HIV research in the Middle East and North Africa: new study methods, results, and implications for prevention and care). AIDS 2010, 24(suppl 2):S69-S75.
49. National HIV Serological Surveillance, Bangladesh: 8th Round Technical Report 2008, National AIDS/STD Programme Bangladesh, Government of the People's Republic of Bangladesh, Dhaka.
50. Couture MC, Sansothy N, Sapphon V, et al. Young women engaged in sex work in Phnom Penh, Cambodia, have high incidence of HIV and sexually transmitted infections, and amphetamine-type stimulant use: New challenges to HIV prevention and risk. Sex Transm Dis 2011, 38:33-39.
51. Xu J, Brown K, Ding G, et al. Factors associated with HIV testing history and HIV-test result follow-up among female sex workers in two cities in Yunnan, China. Sex Transm Dis 2011, 38:89-95.
52. Jin X, Chan S, Ding G, Wang H, et al. Prevalence and risk behaviours for Chlamydia trachomatis and Neisseria gonorrhoeae infection among female sex workers in an HIV/AIDS high-risk area. Internat J STD AIDS 2011, 22:80-84.
53. Wang H, Brown KS, Wang G, et al. Knowledge of hiv seropositivity is a predictor for initiation of illicit drug use: incidence of drug use initiation among female sex workers in a high HIV-prevalence area of China. Drug Alcohol Depend 2011, 117:226-232.
54. Li Y, Detels R, Lin P, et al. Prevalence of HIV and STIs and associated risk factors among female sex workers in Guangdong Province, China (Special Issue: China meets new AIDS challenges). J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2010, 53(suppl 1):S48-S53.
55. Hong H, Xu G, Zhang D Long-term follow-up of a comprehensive HIV and sexually transmitted infection prevention program for female sex workers in Ningbo, China. Int J Gynaecol Obstet 2010, 111:180-181.
56. Xu J, Wang H, Jiang Y, et al. Application of the BED capture enzyme immunoassay for HIV incidence estimation among female sex workers in Kaiyuan City, China, 2006-2007. Int J Infect Dis 2010, 14:e608-e612.
57. Li N, Wang Z, Sun D, et al. HIV among plasma donors and other high-risk groups in Henan, China. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2010, 53(suppl 1):S41-S47.
58. Li Y, Lin P, Detels R, et al. Prevalence of HIV infection and sexually transmitted diseases and associated risk factors among female sex workers in Guangdong province. Dis Surveill 2009, 24:599-602.
59. Lu F, Jia Y, Sun X, Wang L, et al. Prevalence of HIV infection and predictors for syphilis infection among female sex workers in Southern China. Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health 2009, 40:263-272.
60. Wang H, Chen RY, Ding G, et al. Prevalence and predictors of HIV infection among female sex workers in Kaiyuan City, Yunnan Province, China. Int J Infect Dis 2009, 13:162-169.
61. Xu J, Wang N, Lu L, et al. HIV and STIs in clients and female sex workers in mining regions of Gejiu City, China. Sex Transm Dis 2008, 35:558-565.
62. Lau JTF, Tsui HY, Ho SPY Variations in condom use by locale: a comparison of mobile Chinese female sex workers in Hong Kong and Mainland China. Arch Sex Behav 2007, 36:849-859.
63. Shethwala ND, Mulla SA, Kosambiya JK, Desai VK Sexually transmitted infections and reproductive tract infections in female sex workers. Indian J Pathol Microbiol 2009, 52:198-199.
64. Mehendale SM, Gupte N, Paranjape RS, Brahme RG, Kohli R Declining HIV incidence among patients attending sexually transmitted infection clinics in Pune, India. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2007, 45:564-569.
65. Wayal S, Cowan F, Warner P, Copas A, Mabey D, Shahmanesh M Contraceptive practices, sexual and reproductive health needs of HIV-positive and negative female sex workers in Goa, India. Sex Transm Infect 2011, 87:58-64.
66. Shahmanesh M, Cowan F, Wayal S, Copas A, Patel V, Mabey D The burden and determinants of HIV and sexually transmitted infections in a population-based sample of female sex workers in Goa, India. Sexually Trans Infect 2009, 85:50-59.
67. Sarkar K, Bal B, Mukherjee R, et al. Sex-trafficking, violence, negotiating skill, and HIV infection in brothel-based sex workers of eastern India, adjoining Nepal, Bhutan, and Bangladesh. J Health Popul Nutr 2008, 26:223-231.
68. Ramesh BM, Moses S, Washington R, et al. Determinants of HIV prevalence among female sex workers in four south Indian states: analysis of cross-sectional surveys in twenty-three districts (special issue: characterizing the Indian HIV epidemic and assessing large-scale prevention efforts-Avahan.). AIDS 2008, 22(suppl 5):S35-S44.
69. Talsania NJ, Rathod D, Shah R, Patel Y, Mathur N STI/HIV prevalence in Sakhi Swasthya Abhiyan, Jyotisangh, Ahmedabad: a clinico-epidemiological study. Indian J Sex Transm Dis 2007, 28:15-18.
70. Silitonga N, Davies SC, Kaldor J, Wignall S, Okoseray M Prevalence over time and risk factors for sexually transmissible infections among newly-arrived female sex workers in Timika, Indonesia. Sex Health 2011, 8:61-64.
71. Magnani R, Riono P, Nurhayati, et al. Sexual risk behaviours, HIV and other sexually transmitted infections among female sex workers in Indonesia. Sex Transm Infect 2010, 86:393-399.
72. Integrated behavioral biological surveillance, Laos 2009, Center for HIV/AIDS/STI Lao, Family Health International, Vientiane.
73. Malaysia Integrated Bio-Behavioural Surveillance (IBBS) Survey 2009, Malaysian AIDS Council, Malaysian AIDS Council, Kuala Lumpur.
74. Davaalkham J, Unenchimeg P, Baigalmaa C, et al. High-risk status of HIV-1 infection in the very low epidemic country, Mongolia, 2007. Int J STD AIDS 2009, 20:391-394.
75. Hagan JE, Dulmaa N Risk factors and prevalence of HIV and sexually transmitted infections among low-income female commercial sex workers in Mongolia. Sex Transm Dis 2007, 34:83-87.
76. Enkhbold S, Tugsdelger S, Morita S, Sakamoto J, Hamajima N HIV/AIDS related knowledge and risk behaviors among female sex workers in two major cities of Mongolia. Nagoya J Med Sci 2007, 69:157-165.
77. Silverman JG, Dekcer MR, Gupta J, Maheshwari A, Willis BM, Raj A HIV prevalence and predictors of infection in sex-trafficked Nepalese girls and women. JAMA 2007, 298:536-542.
78. Integrated biological and behavioral surveillance survey among female sex workers in Kathmandu valley: round III 2008, National Centre for AIDS and STD Control (NCASC), Ministry of Health and Population, Kathmandu.
79. Integrated biological and behavioral surveillance survey among female sex workers Pokhara Valley: round III 2008, Control N-NCfAaS, Family Health International, Kathmandu.
80. Hawkes S, Collumbien M, Platt L, et al. HIV and other sexually transmitted infections among men, transgenders and women selling sex in two cities in Pakistan: a cross-sectional prevalence survey. Sex Transm Infect 2009, 85(suppl 2):ii8-i16.
81. Bokhari A, Nizamani NM, Jackson DJ, et al. HIV risk in Karachi and Lahore, Pakistan: an emerging epidemic in injecting and commercial sex networks. Int J STD AIDS 2007, 18:486-492.
82. National AIDS Control Program HIV second generation surveillance in Pakistan: national report round II. Islamabad: 2008.
83. Bruce E, Bauai L, Masta A, et al. Effects of periodic presumptive treatment on three bacterial sexually transmissible infections and HIV among female sex workers in Port Moresby, Papua New Guinea. Sex Health 2011, 8:222-228.
84. Bruce E, Bauai L, Yeka W, et al. Knowledge, attitudes, practices and behaviour of female sex workers in Port Moresby, Papua New Guinea. Sex Health 2010, 7:85-86.
85. Nhurod P, Bollen LJM, Smutraprapoot P, et al. Access to HIV testing for sex workers in Bangkok, Thailand: a high prevalence of HIV among street-based sex workers. Southeast Asian J Trop Med Pub Health 2010, 41:153-162.
86. Tuan NA, Fylkesnes K, Thang BD, et al. Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection patterns and risk behaviours in different population groups and provinces in Viet Nam. Bull World Health Organ 2007, 85:35-41.
87. Vu Thuong N, Van Nghia K, Phuc Hau T, et al. Impact of a community sexually transmitted infection/HIV intervention project on female sex workers in five border provinces of Vietnam. Sex Transm Infect 2007, 83:376-382.
88. Nguyen TV, Van Khuu N, Truong PH, Nguyen AP, Truong LXT, Detels R Correlation between HIV and sexual behavior, drug use, trichomoniasis and candidiasis among female sex workers in a Mekong Delta Province of Vietnam. AIDS Behav 2009, 13:873-880.
89. Qyra S, Basho M, Bani R, et al. Behavioral risk factors and prevalence of HIV and other STIs among female sex workers in Tirana, Albania. New Microbiol 2011, 34:105-108.
90. Uuskula A, Fischer K, Raudne R, et al. A study on HIV and hepatitis C virus among commercial sex workers in Tallinn. Sex Transm Infect 2008, 84:189-191.
91. Uuskula A, Johnston LG, Raag M, Trummal A, Talu A, Jarlais DC Evaluating recruitment among female sex workers and injecting drug users at risk for HIV using respondent-driven sampling in Estonia. Bull N Y Acad Med 2010, 87:304-317.
92. Dershem L, Tabatadze M, Tsereteli N, Tsagareli T, Tsereteli T Characteristics, high-risk behaviors and knowledge of STI/HIV/AIDS, and STI/HIV prevalence of facility-based female sex workers in Batumi, Georgia: 2004-2006. Report on two behavioral surveillance surveys with a biomarker component for the SHIP Project 2007, Save the Children, Tbilisi, Georgia.
93. Behavioral monitoring and HIV infection prevalence among female sex workers as a component of second generation surveillance 2010, International HIV/AIDS Alliance, Ukrainian AIDS Center, Kyiv.
94. Bautista CT, Pando MA, Reynaga E, et al. Sexual practices, drug use behaviors, and prevalence of HIV, syphilis, hepatitis B and C, and HTLV-1/2 in immigrant and non-immigrant female sex workers in Argentina. J Immigrant Minority Health 2009, 11:99-104.
95. Schuelter-Trevisol F, Da Silva MV, Oliveira CM, Rodrigues R HIV genotyping among female sex workers in the State of Santa Catarina. Rev Soc Bras Med Trop 2007, 40:259-263.
96. Barrientos JE, Bozon M, Ortiz E, Arredondo A HIV prevalence, AIDS knowledge, and condom use among female sex workers in Santiago, Chile. Cad Saude Publica 2007, 23:1777-1784.
97. Lahuerta M, Sabido M, Giardina F, et al. Comparison of users of an HIV/syphilis screening community-based mobile van and traditional voluntary counselling and testing sites in Guatemala. Sex Transm Infect 2011, 87:136-140.
98. Soto RJ, Ghee AE, Nuñez CA, et al. Sentinel surveillance of sexually transmitted infections/HIV and risk behaviors in vulnerable populations in 5 Central American countries. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2007, 46:101-111.
99. Persaud N, Cox F, Noble C, Bullen-McKenzie M, Obiero W Behavioral surveillance survey/Guyana: out-of-school youth, in-school youth, female sex workers, men who have sex with men, employees of the sugar industry and members of the uniformed Services 2008, Ministry of Health, Georgetown.
100. Duncan J, Gebre Y, Grant Y, et al. HIV prevalence and related behaviors among sex workers in Jamaica. Sex Transm Dis 2010, 37:306-310.
101. Strathdee SA, Lozada R, Martinez G, et al. Social and structural factors associated with HIV infection among female sex workers who inject drugs in the Mexico-US border region. PLoS One 2011, 6:e19048.
102. Loza O Factors associated with early initiation into sex work and sexually transmitted infections among female sex workers in two Mexico-U.S. border cities 2010, ProQuest Information & Learning, San Diego.
103. Ulibarri MD, Strathdee SA, Ulloa EC, et al. Injection drug use as a mediator between client-perpetrated abuse and HIV status among female sex workers in two Mexico-US border cities. AIDS Behav 2011, 15:179-185.
104. Rusch MLA, Brouwer KC, Lozada R, Strathdee SA, Magis-Rodriguez C, Patterson TL Distribution of sexually transmitted diseases and risk factors by work locations among female sex workers in Tijuana, Mexico. Sexually Transm Dis 2010, 37:608-614.
105. Sirotin N, Strathdee SA, Lozada R, et al. A comparison of registered and unregistered female sex workers in Tijuana, Mexico. Public Health Rep 2010, 125(suppl 4):101-109.
106. Ojeda VD, Strathdee SA, Lozada R, et al. Associations between migrant status and sexually transmitted infections among female sex workers in Tijuana, Mexico. Sex Transm Infect 2009, 85:420-426.
107. Patterson TL, Semple SJ, Staines H, et al. Prevalence and correlates of HIV infection among female sex workers in 2 Mexico-US border cities. J Infect Dis 2008, 197:728-732.
108. Aguayo N, LagunaTorres VA, Villafane M, et al. Epidemiological and molecular characteristics of HIV-1 infection among female commercial sex workers, men who have sex with men and people living with AIDS in Paraguay. Rev Soc Bras Med Trop 2008, 41:225-231.
109. HIV/AIDS biological & behavioral surveillance survey 2007, Ministry of Health and Population NAP, Family Health International, Cairo, Egypt.
110. Mahfoud Z, Afifi R, Ramia S, et al. HIV/AIDS among female sex workers, injecting drug users and men who have sex with men in Lebanon: results of the first biobehavioral surveys. AIDS 2010, 24(suppl 2):S45-S54.
111. Kriitmaa K, Testa A, Osman M, et al. HIV prevalence and characteristics of sex work among female sex workers in Hargeisa, Somaliland, Somalia (special issue: progress in HIV research in the Middle East and North Africa: new study methods, results, and implications for prevention and care). AIDS 2010, 24(suppl 2):S61-S67.
112. Abdelrahim MS HIV prevalence and risk behaviors of female sex workers in Khartoum, north Sudan (special issue: progress in HIV research in the Middle East and North Africa: new study methods, results, and implications for prevention and care). AIDS 2010, 24(suppl 2):S55-S60.
113. Znazen A, Frikha-Gargouri O, Berrajah L, et al. Sexually transmitted infections among female sex workers in Tunisia: high prevalence of Chlamydia trachomatis. Sex Transm Infect 2010, 86:500-505.
114. Lajoie J, Massinga Loembe M, Poudrier J, et al. Blood soluble human leukocyte antigen G levels are associated with human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection in Beninese commercial sex workers. Human Immunol 2010, 71:182-185.
115. Ahoyo AB, Alary M, Méda H, et al. Enquête de surveillance intégrée du VIH et des autres infections sexuellement transmissibles chez les travailleuses du sexe au Bénin en 2002. Cahiers d'études et de recherche francophone/Santé 2007, 17:143-151.
116. Mosoko JJ, Macauley IB, Zoungkanyi AC, Bella A, Koulla-Shiro S Human immunodeficiency virus infection and associated factors among specific population subgroups in Cameroon. AIDS Behav 2009, 13:277-287.
117. Dada Y, Milord F, Frost E, et al. The Indian Ocean paradox revisited: HIV and sexually transmitted infections in the Comoros. Int J STD AIDS 2007, 18:596-600.
118. Integrated Biological and Behavioural Surveillance Survey 2008, Family Health International, Nigerian Federal Ministry of Health, Nigeria.
119. Mwandagalirwa K, Jackson EF, McClamroch K, Bollinger R, Ryder RW, Weir SS Local differences in human immunodeficiency virus prevalence: a comparison of social venue patrons, antenatal patients, and sexually transmitted infection patients in eastern Kinshasa. Sexually Transm Dis 2009, 36:406-412.
120. Vandepitte JM, Malele F, Kivuvu D-M, et al. HIV and other sexually transmitted infections among female sex workers in Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of Congo, in 2002. Sex Trans Dis 2007, 34:203-208.
121. Gupta SB, Murphy G, Koenig E, et al. Comparison of methods to detect recent HIV type 1 infection in cross-sectionally collected specimens from a cohort of female sex workers in the Dominican Republic. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 2007, 23:1475-1480.
122. Diallo BL, Alary M, Barry A, Rashed S HIV epidemic among female sex workers in Guinea: prevalence, associated risk factors, vulnerability and trend from 2001 to 2007. Rev Epidemiol Sante Publique 2010, 58:245-254.
123. McClelland RS, Richardson BA, Wanje GH, et al. Association between participant self-report and biological outcomes used to measure sexual risk behavior in human immunodeficiency virus-1-seropositive female sex workers in Mombasa, Kenya. Sex Transm Dis 2011, 38:429-433.
124. Luchters SM, Vanden Broeck D, Chersich MF, et al. Association of HIV infection with distribution and viral load of HPV types in Kenya: a survey with 820 female sex workers. BMC Infect Dis 2010, 10:18.
125. Tovanabutra S, Sanders EJ, Graham SM, et al. Evaluation of HIV type 1 strains in men having sex with men and in female sex workers in Mombasa, Kenya. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 2010, 26:123-131.
126. vd Elst EM, Okuku HS, Nakamya P, et al. Is audio computer-assisted self-interview (ACASI) useful in risk behaviour assessment of female and male sex workers, Mombasa, Kenya?. PLoS One 2009, 4:e5340.
127. Kimani J, Kaul R, Nagelkerke NJD, et al. Reduced rates of HIV acquisition during unprotected sex by Kenyan female sex workers predating population declines in HIV prevalence. AIDS 2008, 22:131-137.
128. Luchters S, Chersich MF, Rinyiru A, et al. Impact of five years of peer-mediated interventions on sexual behavior and sexually transmitted infections among female sex workers in Mombasa, Kenya. BMC Public Health 2008, 8:143.
129. Hirbod T, Kaul R, Reichard C, et al. HIV-neutralizing immunoglobulin A and HIV-specific proliferation are independently associated with reduced HIV acquisition in Kenyan sex workers. AIDS 2008, 22:727-735.
130. Lacap PA, Huntington JD, Luo M, et al. Associations of human leukocyte antigen DRB with resistance or susceptibility to HIV-1 infection in the Pumwani sex worker cohort. AIDS 2008, 22:1029-1038.
131. Chersich MF, Luchters SMF, Malonza IM, Mwarogo P, King'ola N, Temmerman M Heavy episodic drinking among Kenyan female sex workers is associated with unsafe sex, sexual violence and sexually transmitted infections. Int J STD AIDS 2007, 18:764-769.
132. Harijaona V, Ramambason JD, Morisset R, Rasamindrakotroka A, Ravaoarinoro M Prevalence of and risk factors for sexually-transmitted infections in hidden female sex workers. Med Mal Infect 2009, 39:909-913.
133. Biological and behavioral surveillance survey 2007, Malawi NACo, Family Health International, Lilongwe.
134. Integrated behavioral and biological surveillance survey among female sex workers Mauritius AIDS Unit, (accessed March 6, 2012). http://www.gov.mu/portal/goc/moh/file/ibbs.pdf.
135. Sule WF, Adewumi MO, Samuel TC Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) specific antibodies among married pregnant women and female commercial sex workers attending voluntary counseling and HIV testing (VCT) centre in Abuja, Nigeria. African J Biotechnol 2009, 8:941-948.
136. Imade G, Sagay A, Egah D, et al. Prevalence of HIV and other sexually transmissible infections in relation to lemon or lime juice douching among female sex workers in Jos, Nigeria. Sex Health 2008, 5:55-60.
137. Braunstein SL, Ingabire CM, Kestelyn E, et al. High human immunodeficiency virus incidence in a cohort of Rwandan female sex workers. Sex Transm Dis 2011, 38:385-394.
138. Toure Kane C, Diawara S, Ndiaye HD, et al. Concentrated and linked epidemics of both HSV-2 and HIV-1/HIV-2 infections in Senegal: public health impacts of the spread of HIV. Int J STD AIDS 2009, 20:793-796.
139. Wang C, Hawes SE, Gaye A, et al. HIV prevalence, previous HIV testing, and condom use with clients and regular partners among Senegalese commercial sex workers. Sex Transm Infect 2007, 83:534-540.
140. van Loggerenberg F, Mlisana K, Williamson C, et al. Establishing a Cohort at High Risk of HIV infection in South Africa: challenges and experiences of the CAPRISA 002 acute infection study. PLoS One 2008, 3:e1954.
141. Sobela F, Pepin J, Gbeleou S, et al. A tale of two countries: HIV among core groups in Togo. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2009, 51:216-223.
142. Vandepitte J, Bukenya J, Weiss HA, et al. HIV and other sexually transmitted infections in a cohort of women involved in high-risk sexual behavior in Kampala, Uganda. Sex Transm Dis 2011, 38:316-323.
143. Cowan FM, Pascoe SJ, Barlow KL, et al. A randomised placebo-controlled trial to explore the effect of suppressive therapy with acyclovir on genital shedding of HIV-1 and herpes simplex virus type 2 among Zimbabwean sex workers. Sex Transm Infect 2008, 84:548-553.
144. Ainsworth M, Beyrer C, Soucat A AIDS and public policy: the lessons and challenges of "success" in Thailand. Health Policy 2003, 64:13-37.
145. Celentano DD, Nelson KE, Lyles CM, et al. Decreasing incidence of HIV and sexually transmitted diseases in young Thai men: evidence for success of the HIV/AIDS control and prevention program. AIDS 1998, 12:F29-F36.
146. Rojanapithayakorn W, Hanenberg R The 100% condom program in Thailand. AIDS 1996, 10:1-7.
147. Laga M, Galavotti C, Sundararaman S, Moodie R The importance of sex-worker interventions: the case of Avahan in India. Sex Transm Infect 2010, 86(suppl 1):i6-i7.
148. Swendeman D, Ishika B, Sankari D, Smarajit J, RotheramBorus MJ Empowering sex workers in India to reduce vulnerability to HIV and sexually transmitted diseases. Soc Sci Med 2009, 69:1157-1166.
149. Caceres CF HIV among gay and other men who have sex with men in Latin America and the Caribbean: a hidden epidemic?. AIDS 2002, 16:S23-S33.
150. Ditmore M, Allman D Implications of PEPFAR's anti-prostitution pledge for HIV prevention among organizations working with sex workers. HIV AIDS Policy Law Rev 2010, 15:63-64.
151. Masenior NF, Beyrer C The US anti-prostitution pledge: first amendment challenges and public health priorities. PLoS Med 2007, 4:e207.
152. Kerrigan D, Telles P, Torres H, Overs C, Castle C Community development and HIV/STI-related vulnerability among female sex workers in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Health Educ Res 2008, 23:137-145.
153. Guidelines for second generation HIV surveillance 2000, UNAIDS, WHOWHO, World Health Organization, Geneva.
154. Stover J, Bertozzi S, Gutierrez JP, et al. The global impact of scaling up HIV/AIDS prevention programs in low- and middle-income countries. Science 2006, 311:1474-1476.
155. National guidelines for HIV/STI programs for sex workers 2010, The National AIDS and STIs Control Programme, Ministry of Public Health and Sanitation, Nairobi, Kenya.
156. Kenya national AIDS strategic plan 2010-2013-delivering on universal access to services 2009, The National AIDS and STIs Control Programme, Office of the President, Nairobi, Kenya.
157. Supervie V, Halima Y, Blower S Assessing the impact of mass rape on the incidence of HIV in conflict-affected countries. AIDS 2010, 24:2841-2847.
158. Schwartlander B, Stover J, Hallett T, et al. Towards an improved investment approach for an effective response to HIV/AIDS. Lancet 2011, 377:2031-2041.
159. Chohan V, Baeten JM, Benki S, et al. A prospective study of risk factors for herpes simplex virus type 2 acquisition among high-risk HIV-1 seronegative women in Kenya. Sex Transm Infect 2009, 85:489-492.
160. Brahmam GN, Kodavalla V, Rajkumar H, et al. Sexual practices, HIV and sexually transmitted infections among self-identified men who have sex with men in four high HIV prevalence states of India. AIDS 2008, 22(suppl 5):S45-S57.
161. Kang D, Liao M, Jiang Z, et al. Commercial sex venues, syphilis and methamphetamine use among female sex workers. AIDS Care 2011, 23:26-36.
162. Gross national income per capita 2008, Atlas method and PPP 2009, The World Bank, The World Bank, Geneva.
163. Cohen MS, Chen YQ, McCauley M, et al. Prevention of HIV-1 infection with early antiretroviral therapy. N Engl J Med 2011, 365:493-505.