Where species meet and mingle: Endemic human-virus relations, embodied communication and more-than-human agency at the common cold unit 1946-90

Cultural Geographies

Volumn 19, Issue 3, 2012, Pages 281-301

  Greenhough, Beth ^a  

^a QUEEN MARY UNIVERSITY OF LONDON   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Biopolitics; Common cold virus; Companion species; Embodiment; Materiality; More than human geography; Ontological politics

Indexed keywords

ACQUIRED IMMUNE DEFICIENCY SYNDROME; ENDEMISM; EPIDEMIC; HEALTH CARE; HEALTH GEOGRAPHY; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS;

UNITED KINGDOM;

EID: 84862648157     PISSN: 14744740     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/1474474011422029     Document Type: Article

References (184)

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2. A. Cliff and P. Haggett, 'Spatial Aspects of Epidemic Control', Progress in Human Geography, 13(3), 1989, pp. 313-47.
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9. Braun, 'Biopolitics and the Molecularization of Life', p. 23.
10. It is also perhaps worth noting that while the recent analyses of biosecurity emphasize emerging epidemics and new social and political strategies for dealing with these, this potent mix of biopolitics and geopolitics has been seen before.
11. S. Watts, Epidemics and History: Disease, Power and Imperialism (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1998).
12. Braun, 'Biopolitics and the Molecularization of Life'.
13. Ingram, 'Global Health Security'.
14. Sparke, 'From Global Flu to Global Health'.
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19. Keil and Ali, Networked Disease.
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21. Van Loon, 'Epidemic Space', p. 40 citing U. Beck Risk Society (New Delhi: SAGE, 1992).
22. Braun, 'Biopolitics and the Molecularization of Life', p. 15.
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24. Ingram, 'Global Health Security'.
25. Sparke, 'From Global Flu to Global Health'.
26. Gandy 'Deadly Alliances'.
27. Kearns and Reid-Henry, 'Vital Geographies'.
28. Keil and Ali, Networked Disease.
29. Hinchliffe and Bingham, 'People, Animals and Biosecurity', p. 226.
30. M. Brown, 'Sexual Citizenship, Political Obligation and Disease Ecology in Gay Seattle', Political Geography, 25, 2006, pp. 874-898.
31. R. Butler and H. Parr (eds) Mind and Body Spaces: Geographies of Illness, Impairment and Disability (London: Routledge, 1999), p. 307.
32. S. Craddock, 'Disease, Social Identity, and Risk: Rethinking the Geography of AIDS', Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, 25, 2000, pp. 153-168.
33. M. Southern, 'On Not Living with AIDS: Or AIDS-as-Post-Crisis', ACME, 5, 2006, pp. 144-162.
34. L.M. Takahashi, D. Wiebe and R. Rodrigeuz, 'Navigating the Space-Time Context of HIV and AIDS: Daily Routines and Access to Care', Social Science and Medicine, 53, 2001, pp. 845-63.
35. Brown, 'Sexual Citizenship'.
36. Brown, 'Sexual Citizenship', p. 894.
37. D. Haraway, When Species Meet (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2008), and in part from a session of the 2008 RGS-IBG Annual conference http://ww.geog.plymouth.ac.uk/ruralgeography/confreports/08RGSIBG5.doc (21 March 2010).
38. H. Lorimer, 'Herding Memories of Humans and Animals', Environment and Planning D: Society and Space, 24(4), 2006, pp. 497-518.
39. J. Lorimer, 'Moving Image Methodologies for More-than-Human Geographies', cultural geographies, 17, 2010, pp. 237-58.
40. Cardiff University Common Cold Centre http://www.cardiff.ac.uk/biosi/subsites/cold/ (21 March 2010).
41. Haraway, The Companion Species Manifesto: Dogs, People and Significant Otherness (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2003).
42. Here I take inspiration from the work of Lynn Margulis on our symbiotic relations with microbial life,
43. L. Margulis, The Symbiotic Planet: A New Look at Evolution (London: Phoenix, 1999)
44. M. Hird, The Origins of Sociable Life: Evolution after Science Studies (Basingstoke: Palgrave Press, 2009).
45. C. Andrewes, The Common Cold (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1965)
46. D. Tyrrell and M. Fielder, Cold Wars: The Fight against the Common Cold (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002)
47. K. Thompson, Harvard Hospital and its Volunteers: The Story of the Common Cold Research Unit (Warminster: Danny Howell Books, 1991).
48. E.M. Tansey, D.A. Christie and L.A. Reynolds (eds) 'Wellcome Witness to Twentieth Century Medicine, volume 2, Part IV The MRC Common Cold Unit' http://www.ucl.ac.uk/silva/histmed/downloads/c20th_group/wit2.pdf (26 March 2010).
49. These interviews can be found here http://sounds.bl.uk/Browse.aspx?collection=History-of-the-Common-Cold-Unit&browseby=Browse+by+interviewee&choice=A-C (28 April 2011). These interviews, conducted mainly with the scientific and technical staff at the unit, provided detailed insights into everyday life and work at the CCU as well specific scientific experiments and procedures.
50. A. Crosby, America's Forgotten Pandemic: The Influenza of 1918 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989).
51. 'Coughs and Sneezes', UK public health campaign film http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/films/1945to1951/filmpage_cas.htm (21 March 2010).
52. The use of a former military hospital is one of several elements of the CCU that reflects a close relationship between national and biological securities that has also formed a key feature of contemporary geographical analyses of epidemics. In addition, the CCU was also located close to the military biological weapons research facility at Porton Down, and during the 1960s and 1970s scientific seminars and discussions would often involve the two. This is reflected in some of the equipment used at the CCU, including devices such as the Porton Down Impinger.
53. The UK Ministry of Defense (MOD) notes that 'Papers published in technical journals show that throughout the 1950s, 60s and 70s, large numbers of Service personnel took part in trials of Influenza vaccines... [which] took place at both military units and the CCU'. It seems people often confused the two research facilities, with volunteer soldiers heading to Porton Down in one case thinking they were going to the CCU.
54. T. Bolton, 'Never Volunteer for Anything: The Concept of the Volunteer in Human Experimentation during the Cold War', University of Sussex Journal of Contemporary History, 9, 2005.
55. Yet the CCU was also qualitatively different from military medical research facilities and any move to combine the two was resisted by the MRC on the grounds that 'they would no longer be able to attract volunteers if they were associated with the MOD research establishments'. One of the key things to come up in searches about the CCU is a statement by the UK Ministry of Defence clearly stating that, 'In summary, it is clear the CCU and Ministry of Defence establishment at Porton Down were completely separate.
56. No work on the common cold has been undertaken at Porton Down and there is no evidence that volunteers were recruited for trials at Porton Down under the pretext of common cold research.' UK Ministry of Defence, 'The Medical Research Council Common Cold Research Unit' http://www.mod.uk/DefenceInternet/AboutDefence/WhatWeDo/HealthandSafety/PortonDownVolunteers/TheMedicalResearchCouncil-CommonColdResearchUnit.htm (13 August 2008).
57. Tyrrell and Fielder, Cold Wars, p. 241.
58. It should be noted similar research to that undertaken at the CCU during its latter years is now ongoing at the Common Cold Research Unit at Cardiff University.
59. Tyrrell and Fielder, Cold Wars, p. 143.
60. At this point, it is perhaps important to note that while the common cold rarely proves fatal in western nations with well established public and private healthcare provision, less is known about the current impact of the common cold in populations outside of the west. Historically, the European cold has proved far more deadly among populations which lacked previous viral exposure, see for example.
61. A.W. Crosby, Ecological Imperialism: The Biological Expansion of Europe, 900-1900 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), p. 242.
62. Haraway, When Species Meet, p.16.
63. C. Zimmer, 'Hunting Fossil Viruses in Human DNA', New York Times, 12 January 2010 http://www.nytimes.com/2010/01/12/science/12paleo.html?pagewanted=print (7 April 2010).
64. Y. Tuan, Dominance and Affection: The Making of Pets (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1984).
65. B. Latour's We Have Never Been Modern, (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993).
66. Latour argues that the treatment of nature and society as separate spheres whose truths are revealed by 'objective' natural and 'subjective' social sciences respectively is a fiction perpetrated by the modern western intellectual world. His analysis seeks to deconstruct this divide by drawing attention to assemblages, hybrid objects and debates - such as the current debates about global warming or genetically modified food - that blur the lines between nature and society, science and social science, human and non-human. Haraway's use of the term here reflects her engagement with a divide that she sees as equally significant: the divide between human and non-human living beings.
67. J. Derrida, 'And Say the Animal Responded?', in C. Wolfe (ed.) Zoontologies: The Question of the Animal (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2004), pp. 121-146.
68. J. Derrida and D. Wills, 'The Animal that Therefore I Am (More to Follow)', Critical Inquiry, 28(2), 2002, pp. 369-418.
69. Haraway, When Species Meet, p. 23.
70. N. Bingham, 'Bees, Butterflies and Bacteria: Biotechnology and the Politics of Nonhuman Friendship', Environment and Planning A, 38(3), 2006, pp. 483-498.
71. For aless critical reading of Derrida's approach to non-human friendship.
72. G. Deleuze and F. Guattari, A Thousand Plateaus: Capitalism and Schizophrenia (London: The Althone Press, 2003), p. 610.
73. Haraway, When Species Meet, p. 29.
74. Haraway, When Species Meet, pp. 69-94.
75. Haraway, When Species Meet, p. 71.
76. B. Greenhough and E. Roe, 'From Ethical Principles to Response-able Practice', Environment and Planning D: Society and Space, 28(1), 2010, pp. 43-45.
77. Wolch and J. Emel (eds), 'Bringing the Animals Back In', special issue of Society and Space, 13(6), 1995.
78. J. Wolch and J. Emel, Animal Geographies: Place, Politics and Identity in the Nature-Culture Borderlands (London: Verso, 1998).
79. C. Philo and C. Wilbert (eds) Animal Spaces, Beastly Places: New Geographies of Human-Animal Relations (London: Routledge, 2000).
80. S. Whatmore, Hybrid Geographies: Natures Cultures Spaces (London: SAGE, 2002), p. 225.
81. Tuan's earlier study of pets, Dominance and Affection.
82. S. Hinchliffe, M.B. Kearnes, M. Degen and S. Whatmore, 'Urban Wild Things: A Cosmopolitical Experiment', Environment and Planning D: Society & Space, 23, 2005), pp. 643-58.
83. Bingham, 'Bees Butterflies and Bacteria'.
84. H. Lorimer, 'Herding Memories of Humans and Animals'.
85. J. Lorimer, 'Nonhuman Charisma', Environment and Planning D: Society and Space, 25(5), 2007, pp. 911-32.
86. J. Lorimer, 'Counting Corncrakes: The Affective Science of the UK Corncrake Census', Social Studies of Science, 38, 2008, pp. 377-405.
87. J. Lorimer, 'Witnessing Affect: Video Methodologies for Morethan-Human Geographies' (presented at the 2008 AAG Annual Meeting, Boston, Massachusetts, contact J. Lorimer, Department of Geography, Kings College London).
88. U. Beisel 'Jumping Hurdles with Mosquitoes?', Environment and Planning D: Society and Space, 28(1), 2010, pp. 46-49.
89. See also the series of abstracts for the papers presented at the 'Where Species Meet and Mingle' sessions of the 2008 RGS-IBG Annual conference http://www.geog.plymouth.ac.uk/ruralgeography/confreports/08RGSIBG5.doc(21 March 2010).
90. B. Latour, 'How to Talk About the Body: The Normative Dimension of Science Studies', Body & Society, 10(2), 2004, pp. 205-229
91. Bingham, 'Bees, Butterflies and Bacteria', p. 495.
92. Bingham, 'Bees, Butterflies and Bacteria'.
93. Clark, 'Infectious Generosity', p. 2.
94. E.J. Emanuel, D. Wendler and C. Grady, 'What Makes Clinical Research Ethical?', Journal of the American Medical Association, 283, 2000, pp. 2701-11.
95. Bolton 'Never Volunteer for Anything'.
96. NIMR Archives, Box 137, press cutting folder. Extract from the Western Daily Press, 5 January 1957.
97. Haraway, The Companion Species Manifesto. Haraway's approach is also indebted to the work of biologists including Lynn Margulis; see Margulis, The Symbiotic Planet and Hird, The Origins of Sociable Life.
98. Bingham, 'Bees, Butterflies, and Bacteria', pp. 483-498.
99. The National Archives (TNA) FD9/3661. Letter concerning the setting up of the CCU, May 1946.
100. The National Archives (TNA) FD9/3661. Letter concerning the setting up of the CCU, May 1946.
101. Extract from Visitors book, September 1988, NIMR Archive.
102. In their accounts of their work at the CCU both Tyrrell and Andrewes talk about the CCU's 'pet' and pedigree viruses, 'filtrates taken from people with 100 per cent colds, meaning clinically unquestionable colds and there were a number of these pedigree stocks in the deep freeze at Salisbury'.
103. Tansey et al., 'Wellcome Witness to Twentieth Century Medicine', p. 236.
104. The early 'pet' or 'pedigree' viruses used in the unit were sourced from the scientists and staff who worked there. David Tyrrell (director of the CCU from 1957-90) describes how when looking for a new virus strain to test he remembered that 'a visiting scientist and his assistant had had colds just before they left and had taken nasal washings and left them in the deep freeze',
105. Tyrrell and Fielder, Cold Wars, p. 86.
106. The unit's first virus was named DC after resident scientist Dr Donna Chaproniere.
107. Tansey et al., 'Wellcome Witness to Twentieth Century Medicine', p. 244.
108. Information sheet for CCU volunteers, NIMR CCU archive.
109. TNA FD9/3661.
110. Tansey et al., 'Wellcome Witness to Twentieth Century Medicine', p. 240.
111. P.D. Hart, 'A Change in Scientific Approach: From Alternation to Randomised Allocation in Clinical Trials in the 1940s', British Medical Journal, 319, 1999, p. 572.
112. Clark, 'Infectious Generosity', p. 5.
113. H.J. Rheinberger, Toward a History of Epistemic Things (California: Stanford University Press, 1997), p. 29
114. For a discussion of how experimental conditions both embed and constrain their research objects.
115. Tansey et al., 'Wellcome Witness to Twentieth Century Medicine', p. 245.
116. Tansey et al., 'Wellcome Witness to Twentieth Century Medicine', p. 245.
117. Andrewes, The Common Cold, p. 71.
118. Tyrrell and Fielder, Cold Wars, p. 87.
119. Van Loon, 'Epidemic Space'.
120. I. Stengers, Power and Invention (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1997).
121. Rob Naylor, 'Epideme' http://www.planetsmeg.com/cgi-bin/pagegen.pl?epideme (23 March 2010).
122. Haraway, When Species Meet, p. 26.
123. As Andrewes writes in The Common Cold, while most other species (and bacteria) share a mode of propagation through cell division (in more or less complex ways), viruses reproduce through parasiting the cells of their host organism. This leads Andrewes to reflect that, 'with viruses things are different, so different that is has been suggested that living things should be classified first, not into plants and animals, but into viruses and non-viruses' p. 23.
124. Haraway, The Companion Species Manifesto.
125. S. Whatmore and L. Thorne, 'Elephants on the Move: Spatial Formations of Wildlife Exchange', Environment and Planning D: Society & Space, 18, 2000, pp.185-203.
126. J. Lorimer, 'Elephants as Companion Species: The Lively Biogeographies of Asian Elephant Conservation in Sri Lanka', Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, 35, 2010, pp. 491-506.
127. Lorimer, 'Elephants as Companion Species'.
128. Haraway, When Species Meet, p.16.
129. Lorimer, 'Elephants as Companion Species', p. 496.
130. I. Dyck, 'Body Troubles: Women, the Workplace and Negotiations of a Disabled Identity', in R. Butler and H. Parr (eds) Mind and Body Spaces: Geographies of Illness, Impairment and Disability (London: Routledge, 1999), pp.117-134.
131. P. Moss, 'Autobiographical Notes on Chronic Illness', in R. Butler and H. Parr (eds) Mind and Body Spaces: Geographies of Illness, Impairment and Disability (London: Routledge, 1999), pp. 155-65.
132. Clark, 'Infectious Generosity', p. 2.
133. B. Latour, 'Give Me a Laboratory and I will Raise the World', in M. Biagioli (ed.) The Science Studies Reader (London: Routledge, 1999), pp. 258-75.
134. Tyrrell and Fielder, Cold Wars.
135. Tansey et al., 'Wellcome Witness to Twentieth Century Medicine', pp. 236-237.
136. MRC CCU, 'Guidance of Self-Assessment of Colds' (no date). Source NIMR archive.
137. MRC CCU, 'Guidance of Self-Assessment of Colds'.
138. Andrewes, The Common Cold, p. 127.
139. M. Roach, 'How I Blew My Summer Vacation', in Health magazine, 1990, p. 75.
140. Source NIMR archive.
141. L. Moynihan, 'The Sneeze Hunt', Leader magazine, 22 April 1950 (page numbers missing from photocopy). Source NIMR archive.
142. Tyrrell and Fielder, Cold Wars, p. 239.
143. S. Craddock, City of Plagues: Disease, Poverty, and Deviance in San Francisco (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2000).
144. David Tyrrell's Obituary notes that by the time he retired 'more than 200 cold viruses had been identified; we discovered what it is that makes us catch colds, how they are transmitted and how they affect our bodies. And because the potential causes are so numerous we understood why it is so difficult to find a prevention or a cure': 'David Tyrrell Obituary', The Times, May 2005, http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/comment/obituaries/article523515.ece (28 April 2011).
145. Van Loon, 'Epidemic Space'.
146. TNA FD9/3661. Letter to volunteers from John Wallace MD, clinical administrator.
147. Hird, The Origins of Sociable Life.
148. L. Margulis and D. Sagan, Dazzle Gradually: Reflections on the Nature of Nature (Vermont: Chelsea Green, 2007), p. 31.
149. Hird, The Origins of Sociable Life, p. 66.
150. Clark, 'Infectious Generosity', p. 3.
151. Andrewes, The Common Cold, p. 74.
152. NIMR Archive, Box 137, press cuttings folder. Extract from the Manchester Daily Dispatch, 5 January 1951.
153. N. Clark, 'Infectious Generosity', p. 2.
154. Hinchliffe and Bingham, 'People, Animals and Biosecurity In and Through Cities', p. 226.
155. G. Davies, 'The Funny Business of Biotechnology'.
156. NIMR Archives, Box 137, press cutting folder. Extract from the Western Daily Press, 5 January 1957.
157. G. Enticott, 'The Spaces of Biosecurity: Prescribing and Negotiating Solutions to Bovine Tuberculosis', Environment and Planning A, 40(7), 2008, pp. 568-82.
158. A.H. Kelly and U. Beisel, 'Neglected Malarias: The Frontlines and Back Alleys of Global Health', BioSocieties, 6(1), 2011, pp. 71-78.
159. For an account of local accommodations with malaria bearing mosquitoes reached in the back alleys of Dar es Salaam.
160. Van Loon, 'Epidemic Space', p. 42.
161. MRC, 'Smallpox' http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/smallpox/en/ (7 June 2010).
162. Van Loon, 'Epidemic Space', p. 42.
163. Yet at the same time questions of how to mediate the clinical risks of deliberately infecting volunteers with a cold virus also raises issues of who might be placed at risk in the course of infection. See Bolton, 'Never Volunteer for Anything', for a description of the different conceptions of 'risk' and 'volunteer' in operation at the CCU and the nearby military chemical warfare research facility at Porton Down.
164. M. Hird, 'Meeting with the Microcosmos', Environment and Planning D: Society and Space, 28, 2010, pp. 36-39.
165. Lorimer, 'Nonhuman Charisma'.
166. K. Anderson, 'A Walk on the Wild Side: A Critical Geography of Domestication', Progress in Human Geography, 21(4), 1997, pp. 463-485.
167. S. Whatmore, 'Dissecting the Autonomous Self: Hybrid Cartographies for a Relational Ethics', Environment and Planning D: Society and Space, 15(1), 1997, pp. 37-53.
168. Whatmore and Thorne, 'Elephants on the Move'; Hinchliffe et al., 'Urban Wild Things'; Bingham, 'Bees Butterflies and Bacteria'; Lorimer, 'Herding Memories of Humans and Animals'; Lorimer, 'Nonhuman Charisma'; Lorimer, 'Counting Corncrakes; Tuan, Dominance and Affection.
169. Bingham, 'Bees Butterflies and Bacteria'.
170. Beisel, 'Jumping Hurdles with Mosquitoes?'.
171. Hird, 'Meeting with the Microcosmos', p. 36.
172. C. Philo, 'Animals, Geography, and the City: Notes on Inclusions and Exclusions', Environment and Planning D: Society and Space, 13(6), 1995, pp. 655-681.
173. Enticott, 'The Spaces of Biosecurity'.
174. Tyrrell and Fielder, Cold Wars, p. 151.
175. C. Davidson, S. Frankel and G.D. Smith, 'Lay Epidemiology and the Prevention Paradox Implications of Coronary Candidacy for Health Education' Sociology of Health and Illness, 13, 1991, pp. 1-19.
176. G. Enticott, 'The Ecological Paradox: Social and Natural Consequences of the Geographies of Animal Health Promotion', Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, 33, 2008, pp. 433-446.
177. Enticott, 'The Spaces of Biosecurity'; Hinchliffe and Bingham, 'People, Animals and Biosecurity In and Through Cities'.
178. NHS, 'Tamiflu Side Effects in Children' http://www.nhs.uk/news/2009/07July/Pages/Tamiflusideeffects.aspx (21 April 2011).
179. D. MacKenzie, 'Tamiflu Resistance Emerges in Flu Pandemic' http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn17396-tamiflu-resistance-emerges-in-flu-pandemic.html (21 April 2011).
180. A rhetoric echoed in policies which emphasize biosecurity and purification over vaccination in response to foot and mouth disease and tuberculosis in livestock.
181. Enticott, 'The Ecological Paradox'.
182. One volunteer, a worker at a local hospital event went so far to describe it as 'the healthiest place I know' (CCU visitors' book, 1988, NIMR Archive).
183. H.-H. Shen, 'The Challenge of Discovering Beneficial Viruses', Journal Medical Microbiololgy, 58, 2009, pp. 531-532.
184. Van Loon, 'Epidemic Space', p. 42.