Effects of heavy equipment on physical properties of soils and on long-term productivity: A review of literature and current research

NCASI Technical Bulletin

Volumn , Issue 887, 2004, Pages

  Miller, Richard E ^a   Colbert, Stephen R ^b   Morris, Larry A ^c  

^a USDA FOREST SERVICE   (United States)

^b American Forest Management   (United States)

^c UNIVERSITY OF GEORGIA   (United States)

Author keywords

Best Management Practices; Forest certification; Harvesting; Site preparation; Site productivity; Soil disturbance; Soil physical properties; Stand yields; Sustainable forest management; Tree growth

Indexed keywords

HEAVY EQUIPMENT; NATURAL PROCESSES; SOIL DISTURBANCE; TREE GROWTH;

COSTS; FORESTRY; MOISTURE; PLASTIC PRODUCTS; PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION; RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT MANAGEMENT; RISK ASSESSMENT; WETTING;

SOILS;

COSTS; FORESTRY; MOISTURE; PLASTICS; PRESSURE CONTROL; RISK ASSESSMENT; SOIL; WETTING;

EID: 84862451820     PISSN: 08860882     EISSN: None     Source Type: Trade Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (206)

1. American Society of Agronomy. 1982. Predicting tillage effects on soil physical properties and processes. ASA Publication No. 44. Madison, WI.
2. Andrus, C. W., and H. A. Froehlich. 1983. An evaluation of four implements used to till compacted forest soils in the Pacific Northwest. Research Bulletin 45, Forest Research Lab, College of Forestry, Oregon State University Corvallis, OR.
3. Armstrong, W. 1968. Oxygen diffusion from the roots of woody species. Physiologia Plantarum 21: 539-543.
4. Atwell, B. J. 1993. Response of roots to mechanical impedance. Environmental and Experimental Botany 33: 27-40.
5. Aulerich, D. E., K. N. Johnson, and H. A. Froehlich. 1974. Tractors or skylines: What's best for thinning young-growth Douglas-fir. Forest Industries 12:42-45.
6. Aust, W. M., M. D. Tippett, J. A. Burger, and W. H. McKee, Jr. 1993. Effects of skidder compaction and rutting on soil physical properties and water tables in a South Carolina wetland. In Proceedings of the Seventh Biennial Southern Silvicultural Research Conference. USDA Forest Service General Technical Report SO-93.
7. Aust, W. M., M. D. Tippett, J. A. Burger, and W. H. McKee, Jr. 1995. Compaction and rutting during harvest affect better drained soils more than poorly drained soils on wet pine flats. Southern Journal of Applied Forestry 19: 72-77.
8. Aust, W. M., J. A. Burger, E. A. Carter, D. P. Preston, and S. C. Patterson. 1998a. Visually determined soil disturbance classes used as indices for forest harvesting disturbance. Southern Journal of Applied Forestry 22(4): 245-250.
9. Aust, W. M., J. A. Burger, W. H. McKee, Jr., G. A. Scheerer, and M. D. Tippett. 1998b. Bedding and fertilization ameliorate effects of designated wet-weather skid trails after four years for loblolly pine (Pinus taeda) plantations. Southern Journal of Applied Forestry 22: 222-226.
10. Barnes, K. K, W. M. Carleton, H. M. Taylor, R. I. Throckmorton, and G. E. Vanden Berg. 1971. Compaction of agricultural soils. St. Joseph, MI: American Society of Agricultural Engineers.
11. Bathke, G. R., D. K. Cassel, W. L. Hargrove, and P. M. Porter. 1992. Modification of soil physical properties and root growth response. Soil Science 154: 316-329.
12. Bengough, A. G., C. Croser, and J. Pritchard. 1997. A biophysical analysis of root-growth under mechanical-stress. Plant and Soil 189: 155-164.
13. Bengough, A. G., and C. E. Mullins. 1990. Mechanical impedance to root growth: a review of experimental techniques and root growth responses. Journal of Soil Science 41: 341-358.
14. Berg, P. J. 1975. Developments in the establishment of second rotation radiata pine at Riverhead Forest. New Zealand Journal of Forestry 29: 272-282.
15. Bockheim, J. G., T. M. Ballard, and R. P. Willington. 1975. Soil disturbance associated with timber harvesting in southwestern British Columbia. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 5: 285-290.
16. Bouyoucos, G. J., and M.M. McCool. 1928. The correct explanation for the heaving of soils, plants, and pavements. Journal of the American Society of Agronomy 20: 480-491.
17. British Columbia Ministry of Forests and B. C. Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks. 1995. Hazard assessment keys for evaluating site sensitivity to soil degrading processes. In Forest practice codes guidebook 29. Vancouver, BC: B.C. Ministry of Environment.
18. Burger, M. 1994. A wetland trafficability hazard index based on soil physical properties and site hydrology evaluation. M.S. Thesis, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA.
19. Butt, G. 1989. Effects of skidder compaction on tree productivity. In Proceedings, International Society for Terrain-Vehicle Systems, comp. J. P. Senyk, 260-274, Joint USA-Canada meeting, 24-27 April 1989. Victoria, B.C.: Forestry Canada.
20. Campbell, R. G., J. R. Willis, and J. T. May. 1973. Soil disturbance by logging with rubber-tired skidders. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 28: 218-220.
21. Carlson, W. C. 1986. Root system considerations in the quality of loblolly pine seedlings. Southern Journal of Applied Forestry 10: 87-92.
22. Carr, W. 1989. An evaluation of forest soil tillage using the winged subsoiler on landings in the Prince George Forest District. Victoria, B.C.: Silviculture Branch, Ministry of Forests.
23. Cassel, D. K. 1982. Tillage effects on soil bulk density and mechanical impedance. In Predicting tillage effects on soil physical properties and processes, 45-67. American Society of Agronomy Publication No. 44. Madison, WI.
24. Chancellor, W. J. 1977. Compaction of soil by agricultural equipment. Division of Agricultural Sciences, University of California Bulletin 1881. Richmond, CA: University of California, Division of Agricultural Sciences.
25. Clayton, J. L., G. Kellogg, and N. Forrester. 1987. Soil disturbance-tree growth relations in central Idaho clearcuts. USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station, Ogden, UT. Research Note INT-372.
26. Cochran, P. H., and T. Brock. 1985. Soil compaction and initial height growth of planted ponderosa pine. USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest Range Experimental Station, Portland, OR. Research Note PNW-434.
27. Colbert, S.R. 2001. Tillage effects on soil physical properties of a Typic Kanhapludult and growth and development of loblolly pine (Pinus taeda L.). Ph.D. Dissertation, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC.
28. Cooper, A. W. 1971. Effects of tillage on soil compaction. In Compaction of agricultural soils, 315-364. St. Joseph, MI: American Society of Agricultural Engineers Monograph 1.
29. Corns, I. G. W. 1988. Compaction by forestry equipment and effects on coniferous seedling growth on four soils in the Alberta foothills. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 18: 75-84.
30. Costantini, A., H. B. So, and D. Doley. 1996a. Early Pinus caribaea var hondurensis root development l. Influence of matric suction. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 36: 839-847.
31. Costantini, A., H. B. So, and D. Doley. 1996b. Early Pinus caribaea var hondurensis root development 2. Influence of soil strength. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 36: 847-859.
32. Coutts, M. P. 1982. The tolerance of tree roots to waterlogging. V. Growth of woody roots of Sitka spruce and lodgepole pine in waterlogged soil. New Phytologist 90: 467-476.
33. Daddow, R. L., and G. E. Warrington. 1983. Growth-limiting soil bulk densities as influenced by soil texture. USDA Forest Service, Watershed Systems Development Group, Ft. Collins, CO. Report WSDG-TN-00005.
34. da Silva, A.P., B.D. Kay, and E. Perfect. 1994. Characterization of the least limiting water range of soils. Soil Science Society of America Journal 58: 1775-1781.
35. De Long, D. L., P. M. Osberg, C. Clarke, and W. Hays. 1990. Trial of the tilth winged subsoiler working on naturally compacted soils in North Central British Columbia. Technical Note TN-146. Vancouver, B.C.: Forest Engineering Institute of Canada.
36. Dexter, A. R. 1978. Tunneling in soil by earthworms. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 10: 447-449.
37. Dickerson, B. P. 1976. Soil compaction after tree-length skidding in northern Mississippi. Soil Science Society of America Journal 40: 965-966.
38. Dirksen, C., and R. D. Miller. 1966. Closed-system freezing of unsaturated soil. Soil Science Society of America Journal 30:168-173.
39. Drew, M. C. 1979. Plant responses to anaerobic conditions in soil and solution culture. Current Advances in Plant Science 36: 1-14.
40. Drissi, D. K. 1975. Recovery of abandoned logging road soil in the North Carolina Piedmont. M.S. Thesis, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC.
41. Dulohery, C. J., L. A. Morris, and R. Lowrance. 1996. Assessing forest soil disturbance through biogenic gas fluxes. Soil Science Society of America Journal 60: 291-298.
42. Dyrness, C.T. 1965. Soil surface disturbance following tractor and high-lead logging in the Oregon Cascades. Journal of Forestry 63:272-275.
43. Dyrness, C.T. 1972. Soil surface conditions following balloon logging. USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest Range Experimental Station, Portland, OR. Research Note PNW-RN-182.
44. Eavis, B. W. 1972. Soil physical conditions affecting seedling root growth. I. Mechanical impedance, aeration and moisture availability as influenced by bulk density and moisture levels in a sand loam soil. Plant and Soil 36: 613-622.
45. Fisher, H. M., and E. L. Stone. 1990. Air conducting porosity in slash pine roots from saturated soils. Forest Science 36: 18-33.
46. Foil, R. R., and C. W. Ralston. 1967. The establishment and growth of loblolly pine seedlings on compacted soils. Soil Science Society of America Journal 31: 565-568.
47. Freese, F. 1974. Elementary statistical methods for foresters. USDA Forest Service Agriculture Handbook 317.
48. Froehlich, H. A. 1979a. The effect of soil compaction by logging on forest productivity. Final Report for Bureau of Land Management, USDI. Contract No. 53500-CT4-5(N), Forest Engineering Department, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR.
49. Froehlich, H. A. 1979b. Soil compaction from logging equipment: Effect on growth of young ponderosa pine. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 34: 276-278.
50. Froehlich, H. A., D. E. Aulerich, and R. Curtis. 1981a. Designing skid trail systems to reduce soil impacts from tractive logging machines. In Forest regeneration, Proceedings of the Symposium of Engineering Systems for Forest Regeneration, 82-89. Publication 10-81. St. Joseph, MI: American Society of Agricultural Engineers.
51. Froehlich, H. A., D. E. Aulerich, and R. Curtis. 1981b. Designing skid trails systems to reduce soil impacts on forested land. Final Project Report, Cooperative Agreement No. 228. USDA Forest Service, Equipment Development Center, Missoula, MT.
52. Froehlich, H. A., and E. R. Berglund. 1979. The effect of soil compaction during thinning on the growth of residual trees. Final Report for the Bureau of Land Management, USDI. Contract No. 53500-CT4-5(N). Oregon State University, Forest Engineering Department, Corvallis, OR.
53. Froehlich, H. A., and D. H. McNabb. 1984. Minimizing soil compaction in Pacific Northwest forests. pp. In Forest soils and treatment impacts, ed. E. L. Stone. Proceedings of the 6th North American Forest Soils Conference, 159-192. Department of Forestry, Wildlife, and Fisheries, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN.
54. Froehlich, H. A., D. W. R. Miles, and R. W. Robbins. 1985. Soil bulk density recovery on compacted skid trails in central Idaho. Soil Science Society of America Journal 49:1015-1017.
55. Froehlich, H. A., D. W. R. Miles, and R. W. Robbins. 1986. Growth of young Pinus ponderosa and Pinus contorta on compacted soils in central Washington. Forest Ecology Management 15: 285-294.
56. Garner, M. R., and D. Telfair. 1954. New techniques for the study of restoration of compacted soil. Science. 120: 668-669.
57. Geist, J. M., J. W. Hazard, and K. W. Seidel. 1989. Assessing physical conditions of some Pacific Northwest volcanic ash soils after forest harvest. Soil Science Society of America Journal 53: 946-950.
58. Gent, J. A., Jr., R. Ballard, and A. E. Hassan. 1983. The impact of harvesting and site preparation on the physical properties of Lower Coastal Plain forest soils. Soil Science Society of America Journal 47: 595-598.
59. Gent, J. A., Jr., R. Ballard, A. E. Hassan, and D. K. Cassel. 1984. Impact of harvesting and site preparation on physical properties of Piedmont forest soils. Soil Science Society of America Journal 48: 173-177.
60. Gent, J. A., Jr., and L. A. Morris. 1986. Soil compaction from harvesting and site preparation in the Upper Gulf Coastal Plain. Soil Science Society of America Journal 50: 443-446.
61. Geppart, R., C. W. Lorenz, and A. G. Larson. 1984. Cumulative effects of forest practices on the environment, a state of the knowledge. Olympia, WA: Ecosystems, Inc.
62. Gilman, E. F., I. A. Leone, and F. B. Flower. 1987. Effect of soil compaction and oxygen content on vertical and horizontal root distribution. Journal of Environmental Horticulture 5: 33-36.
63. Glinski, J., and J. Lipiec. 1990. Soil physical conditions and plant roots. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
64. Glinski, J., and W. Stepniewski. 1985. Soil aeration and its role for plants. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
65. Goulet, F. 1995. Frost heaving of forest tree seedlings: A review. New Forests 9:67-94.
66. Greacen, E. L., and R. Sands. 1980. Compaction of forest soils: A review. Australian Journal of Soil Research 18: 163-189.
67. Greenland, D. J., and I. Szabolas. 1994. Soil resilience and sustainable land use. In Proceedings of a symposium held in Budapest, 28 September to 2 October 1992. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.
68. Hammond, H. 1983. Soil disturbance in ground skidded clearcuts in Southeastern British Columbia. In New forests for a changing world. Proceedings of the SAP National Convention: 1983 October 16-20, Portland, OR.
69. Hansen, E. M., D. J. Goheen, P. F. Hessburg, J. J. Witcosky, and T. D. Schowalter. 1986. Biology and management of black-stain root disease in Douglas-fir. In Forest pest management in southwest Oregon, ed, O. T. Helgerson, 13-19. College of Forestry, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR.
70. Harris, W.L. 1971. The soil compaction process. In Compaction of agricultural soils, ed. K.K. Barnes, W.M. Carleton, H.M. Taylor, R.I. Throckmorton, and G.E. Vanden Berg, 9-44. St. Joseph, MI: American Society of Agricultural Engineers.
71. Hatchell, G. E. 1981. Site preparation and fertilizer increase pine growth on soils compacted in logging. Southern Journal of Applied Forestry 79-83.
72. Hatchell, G. E., and C. W. Ralston. 1971. Natural recovery of surface soils disturbed in logging. Tree Planters' Notes 22: 5-9.
73. Hatchell, G. E., C. W. Ralston, and R. R. Foil. 1970. Soil disturbances in logging: Effects on soil characteristics and growth of loblolly pine in the Atlantic Coastal Plain. Journal of Forestry 68: 772-775.
74. Helms, J. A. and C. Hipkin. 1986. Effects of soil compaction on tree volume in a California ponderosa pine plantation. Western Journal of Applied Forestry 121-124.
75. Heninger, R., W. Scott, A. Dobkowski, R. Miller, H. Anderson, and S. Duke. 2002. Soil disturbance and 10-year growth response of coast Douglas-fir on nontilled and tilled skid trails in the Oregon Cascades. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 32:233-246.
76. Heninger, R., W. Scott, T. Terry, R. Miller, and H. Anderson. 1997a. Soil disturbance and subsequent seedling growth on tilled and non-tilled skid trails at eight locations in western Oregon. Unpublished report. Weyerhaeuser Co., Federal Way, WA.
77. Heninger, R.L, T. Terry, A. Dobkowski, and W. Scott. 1997b. Managing for sustainable site productivity: Weyerhaeuser's forest perspective. Biomass Bioenergy 13:255-267.
78. Hillel, D. 1982. Introduction to soil physics. New York: Academic Press Inc.
79. Hole, F. D. 1981. Effects of animals on soil. Geoderma 25: 75-112.
80. Holman, G. T., F. B. Knight, and R. A. Struchtemeyer. 1978. The effects of mechanized harvesting on soil conditions in the spruce-fir region of North-Central Maine. Bulletin 751, Life Science and Agriculture Experimental Station, University of Maine, Orono, ME.
81. Hook, D.D., and J.R. Scholtens. 1978. Adaptation and flood tolerance of tree species. In Plant life in anaerobic environments, ed. D.D. Hook and R.M.M. Crawford, 299-331. Ann Arbor, MI: Ann Arbor Science.
82. Hughes, J. H., R. C. Campbell, H. W. Duzan, and C.S. Dudley. 1979. Site index adjustments for intensive forest management treatments at North Carolina. Weyerhaeuser Co., New Bern, NC. Weyerhaeuser Forest Research Technical Report 042-1401/79/24.
83. Ivanov, B. N. 1976. Dynamics of soil density in clearings of spruce (Abies) forests. Lesovedenie 4: 26-30.
84. Jackson, M. B. 1994. Root-to-shoot communication in flooded plants: involvement of abscisic acid, ethylene, and 1-aminocyclopropane-1-caboxylic acid. Agronomy Journal 86: 775-782.
85. Jacobs, K. A., and J. D. MacDonald. 1990. The effect of low oxygen stress on growth of cork oak and development of phytophthora root rot. University of California Cooperative Extension 27(5).
86. Jakobsen, B. F. 1973. Interrelations of soil physical characteristics. Acta Agriculturæ Scandinavica 23: 165-172.
87. Jakobsen, B. F. 1983. Persistence of compaction effects in a forest Kraznozem. Australian Forest Research 13: 305-308.
88. Kalisz, P. J., and E. L. Stone. 1984. Soil mixing by scarab beetles and pocket gophers in north-central Florida. Soil Science Society of America Journal 48:169-172.
89. Kawase, M. 1976. Ethylene accumulation in flooded plants. Physiologia Plantarum 36: 236-241.
90. Kelting, D.L., J.A. Burger, and S.C. Patterson. 2000. Early loblolly pine growth response to changes in soil environment. New Zealand Journal of Forestry Science 30: 206-224.
91. Kludze, H. K. 1994. Evaluation of root oxygenation and growth in baldcypress in response to short-term soil hypoxia. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 24: 804-809.
92. Klute, A. 1982. Tillage effects on the hydraulic properties of soil: A review. In Predicting tillage effects on soil physical properties and processes, 29-43. American Society of Agronomy Publication No. 44. Madison, WI.
93. Kozlowski, T. T. 1985. Soil aeration; flooding and tree growth. Journal of Arboriculture 11: 85.
94. Kranabetter, M., and M. Osberg. 1995. Landing reclamation trials in the Prince George Forest Region. British Columbia Ministry of Forests.
95. Kranabetter, M., G. Higginson, and A. Baxter. 1996. Alleviating compaction of medium-textured soils with the winged subsoiler. Forest Sciences, Prince Rupert Forest Region, Ext. Note No. 17.
96. Krumbach, A. W., Jr., and D. P. White. 1964. Moisture, pore space, and bulk density changes in frozen soil. Soil Science Society of America Proceedings 28: 422-425.
97. Larson, W. E. and R. R. Allmaras. 1971. Management factors and natural forces as related to compaction. In Compaction of agricultural soils, ed. K. K. Barnes, W. M. Carleton, H. M. Taylor, R. I. Throckmorton, and G. E. Van den Berg, 367-427. St. Joseph, MI: American Society of Agricultural Engineers.
98. Letey, J. 1985. Relationship between soil physical properties and crop productions. Advances in Soil Science 1: 277-294.
99. Levan, M. A., and E. L. Stone. 1983. Soil modification by colonies of black meadow ants in a New York old field. Soil Science Society of America Journal 47: 1192-1195.
100. Li, X. L., E. George, H. Marchner, and J. L. Zhang. 1997. Phosphorus acquisition from compacted soil by hyphae of mycorrhizal fungus associated with red clover (Trifolium pratense). Canadian Journal of Botany 75: 723-729.
101. Lockaby, B. G., and C. G. Vidrine. 1984. Effect of logging equipment traffic on soil density and growth and survival of young loblolly pine. Southern Journal of Applied Forestry 8: 109-112.
102. Louiser, J. D. (Comp.). 1990. Impacts of forest harvesting and regeneration on forest sites. British Columbia Ministry of Forests, Victoria, Land Management Report No. 67.
103. Lowery, R. F., and D. H. Gjerstad. 1991. Chemical and mechanical site preparation. In Forest regeneration manual, ed. M. L. Duryea and P. M. Dougherty, 252-261. Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
104. Ludovici, K. H., and L. A. Morris. 1997. Competition-induced reductions in soil water availability reduced pine root extension rates. Soil Science Society of America Journal 61: 1196-1202.
105. Lull, H. W. 1959. Soil compaction on forest and range lands. USDA Forest Service Miscellaneous Paper 768.
106. Mace, A. C., Jr. 1971. Recovery of forest soils from compaction by rubber-tired skidders. Minnesota Forest Resources Notes No. 226, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN.
107. Mason, E. G., and A. W. J. Cullen. 1986. Growth of Pinus radiata on ripped and unripped Taupo pumice soil. New Zealand Journal of Forestry Science 16: 3-18.
108. Materchera, A. M., J. M. Alton, J. M. Kirby, and A. R. Dexter. 1992. Influence of root diameter on penetration of seminal roots into a compacted subsoil. Plant and Soil 144: 297-303.
109. McColl, J. G., and D. F. Grigal. 1979. Nutrient losses in leaching and erosion by intensive forest harvesting. In. Impact of intensive harvesting on forest nutrient cycling, ed. A.L. Leaf, 231-248. State University of New York, Syracuse, NY.
110. McColl, J. G., and R. F. Powers. 1984. Consequences of forest management on soil-tree relationships. In Nutrition of plantation forests, ed. G. D. Bowen and E. K. S. Nambiar, 379-412. London: Academic Press.
111. McKee, W. H., Jr., G. E. Hatchell, and A. E. Tiarks. 1985. Managing site damage from logging. USDA Forest Service, Southeast Forest Experimental Station General Technical Report SE-32.
112. McNabb, D. H., and S. D. Hobbs. 1989. Shallow tillage fails to increase 5-year growth of ponderosa pine seedlings. Northwest Science 63: 241-245.
113. Mead, D. J., A. G. D. Whyte, R. C. Woollons, and P. N. Beets. 1991. Designing long-term experiments to study harvesting impacts. In Long-term field trials to assess environmental impacts of harvesting. Proceedings, IEA/BE T6/A6 Workshop, February 1990, Florida, USA, ed. W. J. Dyck and C. A. Mees, 107-124. New Zealand Forest Research Institute Bulletin 161.
114. Miles, J. A., B. R. Hartsough, P. Avlani, and W. J. Chancellor. 1981. A soil compaction study on the Blodgett Experimental Forest. In Forest regeneration, Proceedings of the Symposium of Engineering Systems for Forest Regeneration, 72-81. Publication 10-81. St. Joseph, MI: American Society of Agricultural Engineers.
115. Miller, J. H., and D. L. Sirois. 1986. Soil disturbance by skyline yarding versus skidding in a loamy skyline yarding versus skidding in a loamy hill forest. Soil Science Society of America Journal 50: 1579-1583.
116. Miller, R. E., R. E. Bigley, and S. Webster. 1993. Early development of matched planted and naturally regenerated Douglas-fir stands after slash burning in the Cascade Range. Western Journal of Applied Forestry 8(1): 5-10.
117. Miller, R. E., W. I. Stein, R. L. Heninger, W. Scott, S. N. Little, and D. J. Goheen. 1989. Maintaining and improving site productivity in the Douglas-fir region. In Maintaining the long-term productivity of Pacific Northwest forest ecosystems, ed. D.A. Perry, R. Meurisse, B. Thomas, R. Miller, J. Boyle, J. Means, C. R. Perry, and R. F. Power, 98-136. Portland, OR: Timber Press, Inc.
118. Miller, R. E., W. Scott, and J. W. Hazard. 1996. Soil compaction and conifer growth after tractor yarding at three coastal Washington locations. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 26: 225-236.
119. Minore, D. 1979. Comparative autecological characteristics of Northwestern tree species - a literature review. USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experimental Station, Portland, OR. General Technical Report PNW-87.
120. Minore, D., C. E. Smith, and R. F. Wollard. 1969. Effects of high soil density on seedling root growth of seven northwestern tree species. USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experimental Station, Portland, OR. General Technical Report PNW-112.
121. Misra, R. K., and A. K. Gibbons. 1996. Growth and morphology of eucalypt seedling-roots, in relation to soil strength arising from compaction. Plant and Soil 182:1-11.
122. Mitchell, M. L., A. E. Hassan, C. B. Davey, and J. D. Gregory. 1982. Loblolly pine growth in compacted greenhouse soils. Transactions of the American Society of Agricultural Engineers 25(2): 304-307, 312.
123. Moehring, D. M., and I. W. Rawls. 1970. Detrimental effects of wet weather logging. Journal of Forestry 68: 166-167.
124. Morris, L. A., and R. F. Lowery. 1988. Influence of site preparation on soil conditions affecting stand establishment and tree growth. Southern Journal of Applied Forestry 12: 170-178.
125. Morris, L. A., and R. E. Miller. 1994. Evidence for long-term productivity change as provided by field trials. In Impacts of forest harvesting on long-term site productivity, ed. W.J. Dyck, D.W. Cole, N.B. Comerford, 41-80. London: Chapman and Hall.
126. Morris, L. A., and W. L. Pritchett. 1983. Effects of site preparation on Pinus elliottii - P. palustris flatwoods forest soil properties. In IUFRO Symposium on Forest Site and Continuous Productivity, ed. R. Ballard and S.P. Gessel, 243-251. USDA Forest Service Pacific Northwest Forest Range Experimental Station General Technical Report PNW-163, Portland, OR.
127. Mukhtar, S. J., L. Baker, and R. S. Kanwar. 1988. Soil aeration and crop growth response to excess water. American Society of Agricultural Engineers Paper No. 88-2611.
128. Munns, R., and C. R. Cramer. 1996. Is coordination of leaf and root growth mediated by abscisic acid - opinion. Plant and Soil. 185: 33-49.
129. Nadeau, L.B., and Pluth D.J. 1997. Spatial distribution of lodgepole pine and white spruce seedling roots ten years after deep tillage of a Gray Luvisol. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 27: 1606-1613.
130. Nambiar, E. K., and R. Sands. 1992. Effects of compaction and simulated root channels in the subsoil on root development, water uptake and growth of radiata pine. Tree Physiology 10: 297-306.
131. North Carolina State Forest Nutrition Cooperative (NCSFNC). 1998. Survival and early growth responses of loblolly pine to surface and subsurface tillage. NCSFNC Report No. 40. College of Forest Resources, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC.
132. _. 2000a. Early loblolly pine growth response to surface and subsurface tillage. NCSFNC Report No. 44. College of Forest Resources, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC.
133. _. 2000b. Influence of surface and subsurface tillage on soil physical properties and soil/plant relationships of planted loblolly pine. NCSFNC Research Note No. 18. College of Forest Resources, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC. 34pp.
134. Orzolek, M. D. 1987. Controlled traffic cropping systems for management of soil compaction Acta Horticulturae 210.
135. Page, I. 1977. Deep ripping - some hints from the United Kingdom. FRI looks at mechanisation. For. Ind. Rev. 33: 30-22.
136. Parker, M. M., and D. H. Van Lear. 1996. Soil heterogeneity and root distribution of mature loblolly pine stands in Piedmont soils. Soil Science Society of America Journal 60: 1920-1925.
137. Perry, T. O. 1964. Soil compaction and loblolly pine growth. Tree Planters' Notes 67:9.
138. Pezeshki, S. R., J. H. Pardue, and R. D. DeLaune. 1996. Leaf gas exchange and growth of flood-tolerant and flood-sensitive tree species under low soil redox conditions. Tree Physiology 16: 453-458.
139. Phillipson, J. J., and M. P. Coutts. 1977. The influence of mineral nutrition on the root development of trees II. The effects of specific nutrient elements on growth of individual roots of Sitka spruce. Journal of Experimental Botany 28: 864-871.
140. Power, W. E. 1974. Effects and observations on soil compaction in the Salem District. USDI, Bureau of Land Management Technical Note, Salem, OR.
141. Powers. R. F., D. J. Meade, J. A. Burger, and M. W. Ritchie. 1994. Designing long-term site productivity experiments. Chapter 9 in Impacts of forest harvesting on long-term site productivity, ed. W. J. Dyck, D.W. Cole, and N. B. Comerford. London: Chapman and Hall.
142. Powers, R.F., and G.O. Fiddler. 1997. The North American Long-Term Soil Productivity Study: Progress through the first 5 years. In Proceedings, Eighteenth Annual Forest Vegetation Management Conf., Jan 14-16, 1997. Sacramento, CA. Published by the Forest Vegetation Management Conference, Redding, CA.
143. Raghavan, G. S. V., P. Alvo, and E. McKyes. 1990. Soil compaction in agriculture: A view toward managing the problem. Advances in Soil Science 11: 1-36.
144. Rasmussen, A. 1991. Trial of the tilth winged subsoiler in west central Alberta. Silviculture Field Note No. 36. Forest Engineering Research Institute of Canada, Vancouver, B.C.
145. Reaves, C.S., and A. W. Cooper. 1960. Stress distribution in soil under tractor loads. Agricultural Engineering 41: 20-21, 31.
146. Reisinger, T. W., P. E. Pope, S. C. Hammond. 1992. Natural recovery of compacted soils in an upland hardwood forest in Indiana. Northern Journal of Applied Forestry 9: 138-141.
147. Reisinger, T. W., G. L. Simmons, and P. E. Pope. 1988. The impact of timber harvesting on soil properties and seedling growth in the South. Southern Journal of Applied Forestry 12:58-67.
148. Rounsevell, M. D. A., and R. J. A. Jones. 1993. A soil and agroclimatic model for estimating machinery work-days: the basic model and climatic sensitivity. Soil and Tillage Research 26:179-191.
149. Sands, R., E. L. Greacen, and C. J. Gerard. 1979. Compaction of sandy soils in radiata pine forests: I. A penetrometer study. Australian Journal of Soil Research 17: 101-113.
150. Scheerer, G. A., W. M. Aust, J. A. Burger, and W. H. McKee, Jr. 1995. Skid trail amelioration following timber harvests on wet pine flats in South Carolina: Two-year results. In USDA Forest Service Eight biennial, 236-243. Southern Silviculture Research Conference. USDA Forest Service General Technical Report SRS-1.
151. Schuster, C. J. 1979. Rehabilitation of soils damaged by logging in south-west Western Australia. Research Paper 54, Forestry Department, Western Australia.
152. Scott, W. 2000. A soil disturbance classification system. Forestry Research Technical Note P00-1. Weyerhaeuser Co., Western Timberlands R and D, Federal Way, WA.
153. Scott, W., R. Meade, R. Leon, R. L. Heninger, and R. E. Miller. 1999. Yield of 30-year-old, coast Douglas-fir stands affected by former skid trails. Unpublished manuscript. Weyerhaeuser Co., Western Timberlands R and D. Federal Way, WA.
154. Senyk, J. P. and R. B. Smith. 1991. Estimating impacts of forest harvesting and mechanical site preparation practices on productivity in British Columbia. In Long-term field trials to assess environmental impacts of harvesting, ed. W. J. Dyck and C. A. Mees. Proceedings, IEA/BE T6/A6 Workshop, Florida. USA, Feb 1990, 199-211. IEA/BE T6/A6 Report No. 5. Forest Research Institute, Rotorua, New Zealand, FRI Bulletin No. 161.
155. Senyk, J., and D. Craigdallie. 1997. Ground-based wet weather yarding operations in coastal British Columbia: Effects on soil properties and seedling growth. Canadian Forest Service, Victoria, B.C. Information Report BC-X-372.
156. Shepperd, W. D. 1993. The effect of harvesting activities on soil compaction, root damage, and suckering in Colorado aspen. Western Journal of Applied Forestry8: 62-66.
157. Shierlaw, J., and A. M. Alston. 1984. Effect of soil compaction on root growth and uptake of phosphorus. Plant and Soil 77: 15-28.
158. Sidle, R. C., and D. M. Drlica. 1981. Soil compaction from logging with a low-ground-pressure skidder in the Oregon coast ranges. Soil Science Society of America Journal 45: 1219-1224.
159. Simmons, G. L., and P. E. Pope. 1987. Influence of soil compaction and vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizae on root growth of yellow poplar and sweetgum seedlings. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 17: 970-975.
160. Simmons, G. L., and P. E. Pope. 1988. Influence of soil water potential and mycorrhizal colonization on root growth of yellow-poplar and sweet gum seedlings grown in compacted soil. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 18: 1392-1396.
161. Skinner, M. F., and G. D. Bowen. 1974. The penetration of soil by mycelial strands of ectomycorrhizal fungi. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 6: 57-61.
162. Slay, J. M., B. G. Lockaby, J. C. Adams, and C. G. Vidrine. 1987. Effects of site preparation on soil physical properties, growth of loblolly pine, and competing vegetation. Southern Journal of Applied Forestry 11: 83-86.
163. Smeltzer, D. L. K, D. R. Bergdahl, and J. R. Donnelly. 1986. Forest ecosystem responses to artificially induced soil compaction II. Selected microorganism populations. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 16: 870-872.
164. th B.C. Soil Science Workshop, 13-27. Land Management Report No. 56. B.C. Ministry of Forest Lands, Victoria, B.C.
165. Smith, R. B., and E. F. Wass. 1976. Soil disturbance, vegetative cover and regeneration on clearcuts in the Nelson Forest District, B. C. Report BC-X-151. Canadian Forest Service, Pacific Forest Research Center,.
166. Smith, R. B., and E. F. Wass. 1979. Tree growth on and adjacent to contour skidroads in the subalpine zone, southeastern British Columbia. Report BC-R-2. Canadian Forest Service, Pacific Forest Research Center, Victoria, B. C.
167. Smith, R. B., and E. F. Wass. 1980. Tree growth on skidroads on steep slopes logged after wildfires in central and southeastern British Columbia. Report BC-R-6. Canadian Forest Service, Pacific Forest Research Center, Victoria, B. C.
168. Soil Science Society of America (SSSA). 1997. Glossary of soil science terms 1996. Madison, WI: Soil Science Society of America Madison.
169. Squire, R. O., P. M. Attiwill, and T. F. Neales. 1987. Effects of changes of available water and nutrients on growth, root development and water use in Pinus radicata seedlings. Australian Forest Research 17: 99-111.
170. Steinbrenner, E. C., and S. P. Gessel. 1955. Effect of tractor logging on soils and regeneration in the Douglas-fir region of southwestern Washington. In 1955 Proceedings Society of American Foresters, 77-80.
171. Stewart, C. C. 1995. Harvesting and site preparation effects on soil
172. Stolzy, L. H., and J. Letey. 1964. Correlation of plant response to soil oxygen diffusion rates. Hilgardia. 35: 567-576.
173. Sutton, R. F. 1993. Mounding site preparation: A review of European and North American experience. New Forests 7: 151-192.
174. Swaby, R. J. 1950. The influence of earthworms on soil aggregation. Journal of Soil Science 1: 195-197.
175. Tardieu, F. 1994. Growth and functioning of roots and of root systems subjected to soil compaction - towards a system with multiple signaling. Soil and Tillage Research 30: 217-243.
176. Taylor, H. M. 1971. Soil conditions as they affect plant establishment, root development and yield. In Compaction of agricultural soils, ed. K. K. Barnes, W. M. Carleton, H. M. Taylor, R. I. Throckmorton, and G. E. Vandenberg, 292-305. American Society of Agricultural Engineers Monograph 1. St. Joseph, MI: American Society of Agricultural Engineers.
177. Taylor, H. M., and H. R. Gardner. 1963. Penetration of cotton seedling taproots as influenced by soil bulk density, moisture content and strength of soil. Soil Science 96: 153-156.
178. Taylor, H. M., G. M. Roberson, and J. J. Parker, Jr. 1966. Soil strength-root penetration relations for medium to coarse-textured soil materials. Soil Science 102: 18-22.
179. Telfair, D., M. R. Garner, and D. Miars. 1957. The restoration of a structurally degraded soil. Soil Science Society of America Proceedings 21: 131-134.
180. Terry, T. A., and R. G. Campbell. 1981. Soil management considerations in intensive forest management. In Forest regeneration, Proceedings of the Symposium of Engineering Systems for Forest Regeneration, Publication 10-81, 98-106. St. Joseph, MI: American Society of Agricultural Engineers.
181. Thorud, D. B., and S. S. Frissell, Jr. 1969. Soil rejuvenation following artificial compaction in a Minnesota oak stand. Minnesota Forest Resources Note No. 208, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN.
182. Thorud, D. B., and S. S. Frissell, Jr. 1976. Time changes in soil density following compaction under an oak forest. Minnesota Forest Resources Note No. 257. University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN.
183. Topa, M. A., and K. W. McLeod. 1986a. Response of Pinus clausa, Pinus serotina and Pinus taeda seedlings to anaerobic solution culture. I. Changes in growth and root morphology. Physiologia Plantarum 68: 523-531.
184. Topa, M. A., and K. W. McLeod. 1986b. Aerenchyma and lenticel formation in pine seedlings: A possible avoidance mechanism to anaerobic growth conditions. Physiologia Plantarum 68: 540-550.
185. Torreano, S. J. 1992. Effects of soil water availability, aeration and soil mechanical impedance on loblolly pine (Pinus taeda L.) root development. Ph.D. Dissertation. The University of Georgia, Athens.
186. Trouse, A.C., Jr. 1971. Soil conditions as the affect plant establishment, root development, and yield: A. Present knowledge and need for research. In Compaction of agricultural soils, 225-240. St Joseph, MI: American Society of Agricultural Engineers.
187. Tuttle, C. L., M. S. Golden, and R. S. Meldahl. 1988. Soil compaction effects on Pinus taeda establishment from seed and early growth. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 18: 628-632.
188. Uhland, R. E. 1950. Physical properties of soils as modified by crops and management. Soil Science Society of America Proceedings 14: 361-366.
189. Unger, P. W., and D. K. Cassel. 1991. Tillage implement disturbance effects on soil properties related to soil and water conservation: A literature review. Soil and Tillage Research 19: 363-382.
190. Unger, P. W. and T. C. Kaspar. 1994. Soil compaction and root growth: A review. Agronomy Journal 86: 759-766.
191. Vanderheyden, J. 1980. Chronological variation in soil density and vegetative cover of compacted skid trails in clearcuts of the Western Oregon Cascades. M.S. Thesis, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR.
192. Vomocil, J. A., and W. J. Flocker. 1961. Effect of soil compaction on storage and movement of soil air and water. Transactions of the American Society of Agricultural Engineers 4: 242-246.
193. Warkentin, B. P. 1971. Effects of compaction on content and transmission of water in soils. In Compaction of agricultural soils, ed. Barnes et al., 126-153. St. Joseph, MI: American Society of Agricultural Engineers.
194. Warnaars, B. C., and B. W. Eavis. 1972. Soil physical conditions affecting seedling growth. II. Mechanical impedance, aeration and moisture availability as influenced by grain-size distribution and moisture content in silica sands. Plant and Soil 36: 623-634.
195. Wass, E. F., and R. B. Smith. 1997. Impacts of cross-contour skidroads on properties of a gravelly sandy loam soil and on planted seedling performance. Canadian Forest Service, Pacific Forest Center, Inf. Report BC-X-369.
196. Wert, S., and B. R. Thomas. 1981. Effects of skid roads on diameter, height, and volume growth in Douglas-fir. Soil Science Society of America Journal 45: 629-632.
197. Whalley, W. R., E. Dumitru, and A. R. Dexter. 1995. Biological effects of soil compaction. Soil and Tillage Research 35: 53-68.
198. Whisler, F.D., J.R. Lambert, and J.A. Landivar. 1982. Predicting tillage effects on cotton growth and yield. In Predicting tillage effects on soil physical properties and processes, 179-198. ASA Publication No. 44. Madison, WI.: American Society of Agronomy.
199. Whitely, G. M., W. H. Utomo, and A. R. Dexter. 1981. A comparison of penetrometer pressures and the pressure exerted by roots. Plant and Soil 61: 351-364.
200. Wierenga, P. J., D. R. Nielsen, R. Horton, and B. Kies. 1982. In Predicting tillage effects on soil physical properties and processes, 69-90. ASA Publication No. 44. Madison, WI.: American Society of Agronomy.
201. Willis, J.R. 1971. A case study of articulated rubber-tired skidders on soil physical conditions in Greene County, Georgia. M.S. Thesis, University of Georgia.
202. Wisiol, K., and J. D. Hesketh, eds. 1987. Plant growth modeling for resource management. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
203. Wronski, E.B., and G. Murphy. 1994. Responses of forest crops to soil compaction. In Soil compaction in crop production, ed. B.D. Sloane and C. van Ouwerkerk, 317-342. Netherlands: Elsevier.
204. Young, I. M., K. Montagu, J. Conroly, and A. G. Bengough. 1997. Mechanical impedance of root growth directly reduces leaf elongation rates of cereals. New Phytologist: 135: 613-619.
205. Youngberg, C. T. 1959. The influence of soil conditions following tractor logging on the growth of planted Douglas-fir seedlings. Soil Science Society of America Proceedings 23: 76-78.
206. Zabowski, D., P.T. Rygiewicz, and M. F. Skinner. 1996. Site disturbance effects on clay soil under radiata pine. I. Soil solutions and clay mineral stability. Plant and Soil 186: 343-351.