Empirically derived subtypes of lifetime anxiety disorders: Developmental and clinical correlates in U.S. Adolescents

Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology

Volumn 80, Issue 1, 2012, Pages 102-115

  Burstein, Marcy ^a   Georgiades, Katholiki ^b   Lamers, Femke ^a   Swanson, Sonja A ^c   Cui, Lihong ^a   He, Jian Ping ^a   Avenevoli, Shelli ^a   Merikangas, Kathleen R ^a  

^a NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF MENTAL HEALTH   (United States)

^b MCMASTER UNIVERSITY   (Canada)

^c HARVARD SCHOOL OF PUBLIC HEALTH   (United States)

Author keywords

adolescents; anxiety disorders; epidemiology; lifetime comorbidity; National Comorbidity Survey Replication Adolescent Supplement (NCS A)

Indexed keywords

ADOLESCENT; ADULT; AGORAPHOBIA; ALCOHOLISM; ANXIETY DISORDER; ARTICLE; ATTENTION DEFICIT DISORDER; COMORBIDITY; CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK; CONDUCT DISORDER; CORRELATION ANALYSIS; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; DISEASE SEVERITY; DRUG DEPENDENCE; DSM-IV-TR; EARLY INTERVENTION; FEMALE; GENERALIZED ANXIETY DISORDER; HEALTH SURVEY; HUMAN; LIFESPAN; MAJOR CLINICAL STUDY; MAJOR DEPRESSION; MALE; MOOD DISORDER; OPPOSITIONAL DEFIANT DISORDER; PANIC; SEPARATION ANXIETY; SOCIAL PHOBIA; AGE DISTRIBUTION; HOSPITALIZATION; MENTAL DISEASE; PREVALENCE; QUESTIONNAIRE; REPRODUCIBILITY; SEX RATIO; UNITED STATES;

ADOLESCENT; AGE DISTRIBUTION; ANXIETY DISORDERS; COMORBIDITY; FEMALE; HUMANS; MALE; MENTAL DISORDERS; PREVALENCE; QUESTIONNAIRES; REPRODUCIBILITY OF RESULTS; SEVERITY OF ILLNESS INDEX; SEX DISTRIBUTION; UNITED STATES;

EID: 84861941314     PISSN: 0022006X     EISSN: 19392117     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1037/a0026069     Document Type: Article

References (92)

1. Achenbach, T. M. (1985). Assessment and taxonomy of child and adolescent psychopathology. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
2. Akaike, H. (1974). A new look at the statistical model identification. IEEE Transactions on Automatic Control, 19, 716-723. doi:10.1109/TAC.1974. 1100705
3. Altemus, M., & Epstein, L. (2008). Sex differences in anxiety disorders. In J. B. Becker, K. J. Berkley, N. Geary, E. Hampson, J. P. Herman, & E. A. Young (Eds.), Sex differences in the brain: From genes to behavior (pp. 397-402). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
4. American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed., text rev.). Washington, DC: Author.
5. Angold, A., Costello, E. J., & Erkanli, A. (1999). Comorbidity. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 40, 57-87. doi:10.1111/1469-7610. 00424
6. Barlow, D. H., Allen, L. B., & Choate, M. L. (2004). Toward a unified treatment for emotional disorders. Behavior Therapy, 35, 205-230. doi:10.1016/S0005-7894(04)80036-4
7. Becker, E. S., Rinck, M., Turke, V., Kause, P., Goodwin, R., Neumer, S., & Margraf, J. (2007). Epidemiology of specific phobia subtypes: Findings from the Dresden Mental Health Study. European Psychiatry, 22, 69-74. doi:S0924-9338(06)00158-110.1016/j.eurpsy.2006.09.006
8. Beesdo, K., Knappe, S., & Pine, D. S. (2009). Anxiety and anxiety disorders in children and adolescents: Developmental issues and implications for DSM-V. Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 32, 483-524. doi:S0193-953X(09) 00056-210.1016/j.psc.2009.06.002
9. Beesdo-Baum, K., Hofler, M., Gloster, A. T., Klotsche, J., Lieb, R., Beauducel, A., . . . Wittchen, H. U. (2009). The structure of common mental disorders: A replication study in a community sample of adolescents and young adults. International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research, 18, 204-220. doi:10.1002/mpr.293
10. Beidel, D. C., Turner, S. M., Young, B., & Paulson, A. (2005). Social effectiveness therapy for children: Three-year follow-up. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 73, 721-725. doi:2005-11147-01510.1037/0022-006X.73.4. 721
11. Bekker, M. H., & Mens-Verhulst, J. (2007). Anxiety disorders: Sex differences in prevalence, degree, and background, but gender-neutral treatment. Gender Medicine, 4(Supplement 2), S178-S193. doi: 10.1016/S1550-8579(07)80057-X
12. Bittner, A., Egger, H. L., Erkanli, A., Costello, E. J., Foley, D. L., & Angold, A. (2007). What do childhood anxiety disorders predict? Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 48, 1174-1183. doi: JCPP181210.1111/j.1469- 7610.2007.01812.x
13. Brown, T. A., & Barlow, D. H. (1992). Comorbidity among anxiety disorders: Implications for treatment and DSM-IV. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 60, 835-844. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.60.6.835
14. Brown, T. A., Chorpita, B. F., & Barlow, D. H. (1998). Structural relationships among dimensions of the DSM-IV anxiety and mood disorders and dimensions of negative affect, positive affect, and autonomic arousal. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 107, 179-192. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.107.2.179
15. Cantwell, D. P., Lewinsohn, M., Rohde, P., & Seeley, J. R. (1997). Correspondence between adolescent report and parent report of psychiatric diagnostic data. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 36, 610-619. doi:10.1097/00004583-199705000-00011
16. Caron, C., & Rutter, M. (1991). Comorbidity in child psychopathology: Concepts, issues and research strategies. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 32, 1063-1080. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.1991 .tb00350.x
17. Choate, M. L., Pincus, D. B., Eyberg, S. M., & Barlow, D. H. (2005). Parent-child interaction therapy for treatment of separation anxiety disorder in young children: A pilot study. Cognitive and Behavioral Practice, 12, 126-135. doi:10.1016/S1077-7229(05)80047-1
18. Chorpita, B. F., Yim, L., Moffitt, C., Umemoto, L. A., & Francis, S. E. (2000). Assessment of symptoms of DSM-IV anxiety and depression in children: A revised child anxiety and depression scale. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 38, 835-855. doi:10.1016/S0005-7967(99)00130-8
19. Costello, E. J., Angold, A., Burns, B. J., Stangl, D. K., Tweed, D. L., Erkanli, A., & Worthman, C. M. (1996). The Great Smoky Mountains Study of Youth: Goals, design, methods, and the prevalence of DSMIII-R disorders. Archives of General Psychiatry, 53, 1129-1136.
20. Costello, E. J., Copeland, W., & Angold, A. (2011). Trends in psychopathology across the adolescent years: What changes when children become adolescents, and when adolescents become adults? Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 52, 1015-1025. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2011.02446.x
21. Costello, E. J., Egger, H. L., & Angold, A. (2005). The developmental epidemiology of anxiety disorders: Phenomenology, prevalence, and comorbidity. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 14, 631-648. doi:S1056-4993(05)00061-110.1016/j.chc.2005.06.003
22. Dadds, M. R., Spence, S. H., Holland, D. E., Barrett, P. M., & Laurens, K. R. (1997). Prevention and early intervention for anxiety disorders: A controlled trial. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 65, 627-635. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.65.4.627
23. Ehrenreich, J. T., Goldstein, C. M., Wright, L. R., & Barlow, D. H. (2009). Development of a unified protocol for the treatment of emotional disorders in youth. Child & Family Behavior Therapy, 31, 20-37. doi: 10.1080/07317100802701228
24. Essau, C. A., Conradt, J., & Petermann, F. (1999a). Frequency and comorbidity of social phobia and social fears in adolescents. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 37, 831-843. doi:S0005-7967(98)00179-X
25. Essau, C. A., Conradt, J., & Petermann, F. (1999b). Frequency of panic attacks and panic disorder in adolescents. Depression and Anxiety, 9, 19-26. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1520-6394(1999)9:1-19:AID-DA3-3.0.CO;2-#
26. Essau, C. A., Conradt, J., & Petermann, F. (2000). Frequency, comorbidity, and psychosocial impairment of anxiety disorders in German adolescents. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 14, 263-279. doi: S0887618599000390
27. Essau, C. A., Conradt, J., & Petermann, F. (2002). Course and outcome of anxiety disorders in adolescents. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 16, 67-81. doi:10.1016/S0887-6185(01)00091-3
28. Ferdinand, R. F., De Nijs, P. F. A., Van Lier, P., & Verhulst, F. C. (2005). Latent class analysis of anxiety and depressive symptoms in referred adolescents. Journal of Affective Disorders, 88, 299-306. doi:10.1016/j.jad. 2005.08.004
29. Ferdinand, R. F., Dieleman, G., Ormel, J., & Verhulst, F. C. (2007). Homotypic versus heterotypic continuity of anxiety symptoms in young adolescents: Evidence for distinctions between DSM-IV subtypes. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 35, 325-333. doi:10.1007/s10802-006-9093-0
30. Ferdinand, R. F., van Lang, N. D., Ormel, J., & Verhulst, F. C. (2006). No distinctions between different types of anxiety symptoms in preadolescents from the general population. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 20, 207-221. doi:S0887-6185(05)00021-610.1016/j.janxdis.2004 .12.003
31. Franco, X., Saavedra, L. M., & Silverman, W. K. (2007). External validation of comorbid patterns of anxiety disorders in children and adolescents. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 21, 717-729. doi:10.1016/j.janxdis. 2006.10.002
32. Ginsburg, G. S. (2009). The Child Anxiety Prevention Study: Intervention model and primary outcome. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 77, 580-587. doi:10.1037/a0014486
33. Grills, A. E., & Ollendick, T. H. (2002). Issues in parent-child agreement: The case of structured diagnostic interviews. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 5, 57-83. doi:10.1023/A:1014573708569
34. Herman, K. C., Ostrander, R., Walkup, J. T., Silva, S. G., & March, J. S. (2007). Empirically derived subtypes of adolescent depression: Latent profile analysis of co-occurring symptoms in the Treatment for Adolescents With Depression Study (TADS). Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 75, 716-728. doi:2007-13640-00510.1037/0022-006X.75.5.716
35. Higa-McMillan, C. K., Smith, R. L., Chorpita, B. F., & Hayashi, K. (2008). Common and unique factors associated with DSM-IV-TR internalizing disorders in children. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 36, 1279-1288. doi:10.1007/s10802-008-9250-8
36. Hoffman, E. C., & Mattis, S. G. (2000). A developmental adaptation of panic control treatment for panic disorder in adolescence. Cognitive and Behavioral Practice, 7, 253-261. doi:10.1016/S1077-7229(00)80081-4
37. Jensen, P. S. (2003). Comorbidity and child psychopathology: Recommendations for the next decade. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 31, 293-300. doi:10.1023/A:1023281513936
38. Kessler, R. C., Avenevoli, S., Costello, E. J., Green, J. G., Gruber, M. J., Heeringa, S., . . . Zaslavsky, A. M. (2009). Design and field procedures in the US National Comorbidity Survey Replication Adolescent Supplement (NCS-A). International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research, 18, 69-83. doi:10.1002/mpr.279
39. Kessler, R. C., Berglund, P., Demler, O., Jin, R., Merikangas, K. R., & Walters, E. E. (2005). Lifetime prevalence and age-of-onset distributions of DSM-IV disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Archives of General Psychiatry, 62, 593-602. doi:10.1001/archpsyc. 62.6.593
40. Kessler, R. C., & Ustun, T. B. (2004). The World Mental Health (WMH) Survey Initiative version of the World Health Organization (WHO) Composite International Diagnostic Interview (CIDI). International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research, 13, 93-121. doi:10.1002/mpr.168
41. Knäuper, B., Cannell, C. F., Schwarz, N., Bruce, M. L., & Kessler, R. C. (1999). Improving the accuracy of major depression age of onset reports in the US National Comorbidity Survey. International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research, 8, 39-48. doi:10.1002/mpr.55
42. Kraemer, H. C. (1997). What is the "right" statistical measure of twin concordance (or diagnostic reliability and validity)? Archives of General Psychiatry, 54, 1121-1124.
43. Krueger, R. F. (1999). The structure of common mental disorders. Archives of General Psychiatry, 56, 921-926. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.56.10.921
44. Last, C. G., Hersen, M., Kazdin, A. E., Finkelstein, R., & Strauss, C. C. (1987). Comparison of DSM-III separation anxiety and overanxious disorders: Demographic characteristics and patterns of comorbidity. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 26, 527-531. doi:S0890-8567(09)65731-210.1097/00004583-198707000-00011
45. Last, C. G., Strauss, C. C., & Francis, G. (1987). Comorbidity among childhood anxiety disorders. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 175, 726-730. doi:10.1097/00005053-198712000-00004
46. Leon, A. C., Olfson, M., Portera, L., Farber, L., & Sheehan, D. V. (1997). Assessing psychiatric impairment in primary care with the Sheehan Disability Scale. International Journal of Psychiatry in Medicine, 27, 93-105. doi:10.2190/T8EM-C8YH-373N-1UWD
47. Lewinsohn, P. M., Zinbarg, R., Seeley, J. R., Lewinsohn, M., & Sack, W. H. (1997). Lifetime comorbidity among anxiety disorders and between anxiety disorders and other mental disorders in adolescents. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 11, 377-394. doi:S0887-6185(97)00017-0
48. Lilienfeld, S. O., Waldman, I. D., & Israel, A. C. (1994). A critical examination of the use of the term and concept of comorbidity in psychopathology research. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 1, 71-83. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2850.1994.tb00007.x
49. Lo, Y., Mendell, N. R., & Rubin, D. B. (2001). Testing the number of components in a normal mixture. Biometrika, 88, 767-778. doi:10.1093/biomet/88. 3.767
50. Lumpkin, P. W., Silverman, W. K., Weems, C. F., Markam, M. R., & Kurtines, W. M. (2002). Treating a heterogeneous set of anxiety disorders in youth with group cognitive-behavioral therapy: A partially nonconcurrent multiple-baseline evaluation. Behavior Therapy, 33, 163-177. doi:10.1016/S0005-7894(02)80011-9
51. Mackinaw-Koons, B., & Vasey, M. W. (2000). Considering sex differences in anxiety and its disorders across the life span: A construct validation approach. Applied and Preventive Psychology, 9, 191-209. doi:10.1016/S0962-1849(05)80004-6
52. Marmorstein, N. R. (2006). Generalized versus performance-focused social phobia: Patterns of comorbidity among youth. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 20, 778-793. doi:S0887-6185(05)00088-510.1016/j.janxdis. 2005.08.004
53. Masi, G., Millepiedi, S., Mucci, M., Poli, P., Bertini, N., & Milantoni, L. (2004). Generalized anxiety disorder in referred children and adolescents. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 43, 752-760. doi:S0890-8567(09)61325-310.1097/01.chi.0000121065. 29744.d3
54. McCutcheon, A. L. (1987). Latent class analysis. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
55. McGorry, P. D., Purcell, R., Hickie, I. B., Yung, A. R., Pantelis, C., & Jackson, H. J. (2007). Clinical staging: A heuristic model for psychiatry and youth mental health. Medical Journal of Australia, 187(Supplement 7), S40-S42. doi:mcg10315-fm
56. McLean, C. P., Asnaani, A., Litz, B. T., & Hofmann, S. G. (2011). Gender differences in anxiety disorders: Prevalence, course of illness, comorbidity and burden of illness. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 45, 1027-1035. doi:S0022-3956(11)00045-810.1016/j.jpsychires.2011.03.006
57. Merikangas, K. R., Avenevoli, S., Acharyya, S., Zhang, H., & Angst, J. (2002). The spectrum of social phobia in the Zurich Cohort Study of young adults. Biological Psychiatry, 51, 81-91. doi: S0006322301013099
58. Merikangas, K. R., Avenevoli, S., Costello, E. J., Koretz, D., & Kessler, R. C. (2009). National Comorbidity Survey Replication Adolescent Supplement (NCS-A): I. Background and measures. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 48, 367-379. doi:10.1097/CHI. 0b013e31819996f1
59. Merikangas, K. R., He, J. P., Burstein, M., Swanson, S. A., Avenevoli, S., Cui, L., . . . Swendsen, J. (2010). Lifetime prevalence of mental disorders in U.S. adolescents: Results from the National Comorbidity Survey Replication-Adolescent Supplement (NCS-A). Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 49, 980-989. doi:S0890-8567(10)00476-410. 1016/j.jaac.2010.05.017
60. Muris, P., Schmidt, H., Engelbrecht, P., & Perold, M. (2002). DSM-IVdefined anxiety disorder symptoms in South African children. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 41, 1360-1368. doi:S0890-8567(09)60642-010.1097/00004583-200211000-00018
61. Muthén, B., & Muthén, L. K. (2000). Integrating person-centered and variable-centered analyses: Growth mixture modeling with latent trajectory classes. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 24, 882-891. doi:10.1111/j.1530-0277.2000.tb02070.x
62. Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (2010). Mplus user's guide (6th ed.). Los Angeles, CA: Muthén & Muthén.
63. Neil, A. L., & Christensen, H. (2009). Efficacy and effectiveness of school-based prevention and early intervention programs for anxiety. Clinical Psychology Review, 29, 208-215. doi:S0272-7358(09)00003-810.1016/j.cpr.2009.01. 002
64. Norton, P. J. (2008). An open trial of a transdiagnostic cognitivebehavioral group therapy for anxiety disorder. Behavior Therapy, 39, 242-250. doi:S0005-7894(08)00005-110.1016/j.beth.2007.08.002
65. Norton, P. J., & Hope, D. A. (2005). Preliminary evaluation of the broadspectrum cognitive-behavioral group therapy for anxiety. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 36, 79-97. doi: 10.1016/j.jbtep.2004.07.002
66. Nylund, K. L., Asparouhov, T., & Muthén, B. (2007). Deciding on the number of classes in latent class analysis and growth mixture modeling: A Monte Carlo simulation study. Structural Equation Modeling, 14, 535-569. doi:10.1080/10705510701575396
67. Ollendick, T. H., & King, N. J. (1998). Empirically supported treatments for children with phobic and anxiety disorders: Current status. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 27, 156-167. doi:10.1207/ s15374424jccp2702-3
68. Rapee, R. M., Kennedy, S., Ingram, M., Edwards, S., & Sweeney, L. (2005). Prevention and early intervention of anxiety disorders in inhibited preschool children. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 73, 488-497. doi:2005-06517-01110.1037/0022-006X.73.3.488
69. Research Triangle Institute. (2005). SUDAAN: Professional software for survey data analysis (10th ed.). Research Triangle Park, NC: Author.
70. Rosen, G. M., & Lilienfeld, S. O. (2008). Posttraumatic stress disorder: An empirical evaluation of core assumptions. Clinical Psychology Review, 28, 837-868. doi:S0272-7358(07)00204-810.1016/j.cpr.2007.12.002
71. Roth, J. H., & Dadds, M. R. (2004). Prevention of internalizing problems in early childhood: Results of a universal trial. Manuscript submitted for publication.
72. Saavedra, J. M., & Silverman, W. K. (2002). Classification of anxiety disorders in children: What a difference two decades make. International Review of Psychiatry, 14, 87-101. doi:10.1080/09540260220132617
73. SAS Institute. (2008). SAS/STAT user's guide (Version 9.2). Cary, NC: Author.
74. Schwarz, G. (1978). Estimating the dimensions of a model. Annals of Statistics, 6, 461-464. doi:10.1214/aos/1176344136
75. Sclove, L. S. (1987). Application of model-selection criteria to some problems in multivariate analysis. Psychometrika, 52, 333-343. doi: 10.1007/BF02294360
76. Shaffer, D., Fisher, P., Dulcan, M. K., Davies, M., Piacentini, J., Schwab-Stone, M. E., . . . Regier, D. A. (1996). The NIMH Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children Version 2.3 (DISC-2.3): Description, acceptability, prevalence rates, and performance in the MECA Study. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 35, 865-877. doi:10.1097/00004583- 199607000-00012
77. Shear, M. K., Feske, U., & Greeno, C. (2000). Gender differences in anxiety disorders. In E. Frank (Ed.), Gender and its effects on psychopathology (pp. 151-165). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing.
78. Simonoff, E., Pickles, A., Meyer, J. M., Silberg, J. L., Maes, H. H., Loeber, R., . . . Eaves, L. J. (1997). The Virginia Twin Study of Adolescent Behavioral Development: Influence of age, sex, and impairment on rates of disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry, 54, 801-808.
79. Spence, S. H. (1997). Structure of anxiety symptoms among children: A confirmatory factor-analytic study. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 106, 280-297. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.106.2.280
80. Strauss, C. C., & Last, C. G. (1993). Social and simple phobias in children. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 7, 141-152. doi:10.1016/0887-6185(93) 90012-A
81. van Lang, N. D., Ferdinand, R. F., Ormel, J., & Verhulst, F. C. (2006). Latent class analysis of anxiety and depressive symptoms of the Youth Self-Report in a general population sample of young adolescents. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 44, 849-860. doi:S0005-7967(05)00146-410.1016/j.brat.2005. 06.004
82. Verduin, T. L., & Kendall, P. C. (2003). Differential occurrence of comorbidity within childhood anxiety disorders. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 32, 290-295. doi:10.1207/S15374424JCCP3202-15
83. Wadsworth, M. E., Hudziak, J. J., Heath, A. C., & Achenbach, T. M. (2001). Latent class analysis of Child Behavior Checklist anxiety/depression in children and adolescents. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 40, 106-114. doi:S0890-8567(09)60822-410.1097/00004583- 200101000-00023
84. Watson, D. (2005). Rethinking the mood and anxiety disorders: A quantitative hierarchical model for DSM-V. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 114, 522-536. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.114.4.522
85. Weems, C. F., & Stickle, T. R. (2005). Anxiety disorders in childhood: Casting a nomological net. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 8, 107-134. doi:10.1007/s10567-005-4751-2
86. Wittchen, H. U., Beesdo, K., & Gloster, A. T. (2009). The position of anxiety disorders in structural models of mental disorders. Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 32, 465-481. doi:S0193-953X(09)00058-610.1016/j.psc.2009.06. 004
87. Wittchen, H. U., Beesdo-Baum, K., Gloster, A. T., Hofler, M., Klotsche, J., Lieb, R., . . . Kessler, R. C. (2009). The structure of mental disorders re-examined: Is it developmentally stable and robust against additions? International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research, 18, 189-203. doi:10.1002/mpr.298
88. Wittchen, H. U., Lieb, R., & Pfister, H. (2000). The waxing and waning of mental disorders: Evaluating the stability of syndromes of mental disorders in the population. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 41, 122-132. doi: 10.1016/S0010-440X(00)80018-8
89. Wittchen, H. U., Lieb, R., & Schuster, P. (1999). When is onset? Investigations into early developmental stages of anxiety and depressive disorders. In J. L. Rapoport (Ed.), Childhood onset of "adult" psychopathology: Clinical and research advances (pp. 259-302). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing.
90. Wittchen, H. U., Nelson, C. B., & Lachner, G. (1998). Prevalence of mental disorders and psychosocial impairments in adolescents and young adults. Psychological Medicine, 28, 109-126. doi:10.1017/S0033291797005928
91. Woodward, L. J., & Fergusson, D. M. (2001). Life course outcomes of young people with anxiety disorders in adolescence. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 40, 1086-1093. doi:S0890-8567(09)60451-210.1097/00004583-200109000-00018
92. Zinbarg, R. E., & Barlow, D. H. (1996). Structure of anxiety and the anxiety disorders: A hierarchical model. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 105, 181-193. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.105.2.181