The global postcolonial moment and the American new town: India, Reston, Dodoma

Journal of Urban History

Volumn 38, Issue 3, 2012, Pages 553-576

  Friedman, Andrew ^a  

^a HAVERFORD COLLEGE   (United States)

Author keywords

Albert Mayer; CIAM; India; new town; postcolonial; Reston

Indexed keywords

ARCHITECTURE; GARDEN CITY; MODERNITY; NEW TOWN; URBAN AREA; URBAN DESIGN; URBAN HISTORY; URBAN PLANNING;

DODOMA [TANZANIA]; INDIA; SRI LANKA; TANZANIA; UNITED STATES; VIRGINIA; WASHINGTON [UNITED STATES];

EID: 84861888341     PISSN: 00961442     EISSN: 15526771     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/0096144211428765     Document Type: Review

References (277)

1. See the major histories of the town: Washington Center for Metropolitan Studies, Reston: A Study in Beginnings (Washington, DC: Center for Metropolitan Studies, September 1966), esp. 28-29;
2. Nan Netherton, Reston, A New Town in the Old Dominion: A Pictorial History (Norfolk, VA: Donning, 1989);
3. Nicholas Dagen Bloom, Suburban Alchemy: 1960s New Towns and the Transformation of the American Dream (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 2001);
4. Tom Grubisich and Peter McCandless, Reston: The First Twenty Years (Reston, VA: Reston Publishing, 1985);
5. Philip R. Goyert, Jr., "Reston, Virginia, an Architectural History" (master's thesis, University of Virginia, June 1970);
6. Mark Clapson, "Suburban Paradox? Planners' Intentions and Residents' Preferences in Two New Towns of the 1960s: Reston, Virginia and Milton Keynes, England," Planning Perspectives 17 (2002): 145-62; (Pubitemid 34696453)
7. Carlos C. Campbell, New Towns: Another Way to Live (Reston, VA: Reston Publishing, 1976).
8. On the transatlantic planning tradition and the long Garden City movement, see, among others, Clarence S. Stein, Toward New Towns for America (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1966);
9. Daniel T. Rodgers, Atlantic Crossings: Social Politics in a Progressive Age (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1998);
10. Stephen V. Ward, ed., The Garden City: Past, Present and Future (London: Chapman & Hall, 1992), 17;
11. Stanley Buder, Visionaries & Planners: The Garden City Movement and the Modern Community (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990), 205;
12. Daniel Schaffer, Garden Cities for America: The Radburn Experience (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1982), 8;
13. Frederic J. Osborn and Arnold Whittick, New Towns: Their Origins, Achievements and Progress (London: Leonard Hill, 1963), 98.
14. The most thorough source on Albert Mayer and his firm is Thomai Serdari, "Albert Mayer, Architect and Town Planner: The Case for a Total Professional" (PhD diss., New York University, 2005), esp. 4, 31-61;
15. also, Stein, Toward New Towns, "Foreword to the Revised Edition" and 183;
16. Albert Mayer, Greenbelt Towns Revisited (Washington, DC: Department of Housing and Urban Development, October 1968), front matter;
17. J. Michael Elliott, "Julian Whittlesey, Archaeologist and Architect, 89," New York Times, May 23, 1995, B11;
18. John Kendrick, People of the Snow: The Story of Kitimat (Toronto: NC Press Limited, 1987), 132-35.
19. Frederick Gutheim, "Reston: A Note on Its Architectural and Urban Design," in Washington Center for Metropolitan Studies, Reston, vol. 2.
20. See Anoma Pieris, Imagining Modernity: The Architecture of Valentine Gunasekara (Colombo, Sri Lanka: Lake House, 2007);
21. Jon Lang et al., Architecture and Independence: The Search for Identity - India 1880 to 1980 (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1997);
22. Rhodri Windsor Liscombe, "Modernism in Late Imperial British West Africa: The Work of Maxwell Fry and Jane Drew, 1946-56," Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians 65 (June 2006): 188-215;
23. Mark Crinson, Modern Architecture and the End of Empire (Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 2003);
24. Jean-Louis Cohen and Monique Eleb, Casablanca: Colonial Myths and Architectural Ventures (New York: Monacelli Press, 2002);
25. Talinn Grigor, Building Iran: Modernism, Architecture and National Heritage Under the Pahlavi Monarchs (New York: Periscope, 2009).
26. Buder, Visionaries & Planners, 152-54;
27. Isabelle Gournay and Mary Corbin Sies, "Greenbelt, Maryland: Beyond the Iconic Legacy," in Richard Longstreth, ed., Housing Washington: Two Centuries of Residential Development and Planning in the National Capitol Area (Chicago: Center for American Places at Columbia College, 2010), 206;
28. Rodgers, Atlantic Crossings, 482-84.
29. For one recent example, see Ann Forsyth, "The New Community Experiment," in Reforming Suburbia: The Planned Communities of Irvine, Columbia, and The Woodlands (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005), 31-32, but this division implicitly pervades the literature.
30. Heikki von Hertzen and Paul D. Spreiregen, Building a New Town: Finland's New Garden City Tapiola (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1971), 18;
31. Osborn and Whittick, New Towns, 103.
32. Abrams and Gruen quoted in Eric Mumford, Defining Urban Design: CIAM Architects and the Formation of a Discipline, 1937-69 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2009), 122, 142; also see, 81, 95, 103, 135;
33. Ellen Shoshkes, "Jaqueline Tyrwhitt and Transnational Discourse on Modern Urban Planning and Design, 1941-1951," Urban History 36 (2009): 262-83, 271;
34. Buder, Visionaries & Planners, 199-202;
35. Charles Abrams, Man's Struggle for Shelter in an Urbanizing World (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1964).
36. Pierre Merlin, New Towns: Regional Planning and Development, trans. Margaret Sparks (London: Methuen, 1971), 2, 180.
37. Albert Mayer, "News Letter," February 1946, 4-7, box 12.20, Albert A. Mayer Papers, Special Collections Research Center, University of Chicago Library, Chicago;
38. Albert Mayer, "Americans in India," Survey Graphic, March 1947, 390-409;
39. Albert Mayer, "India Emerges," Survey Graphic, July 1947, 202-6.
40. Jawaharlal Nehru to Albert Mayer, May 1, 1946, and Nehru to Mayer June 17, 1946, box 8.1, Mayer Papers;
41. Albert Mayer, Pilot Project, India: The story of rural development at Etawah, Uttar Pradesh (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1958), 5-8;
42. Ravi Kalia, Chandigarh: In Search of an Identity (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1987), 46-47; for much of this time, the firm was known as Mayer, Whittlesey & Glass.
43. Christina Klein, Cold War Orientalism: Asia in the Middlebrow Imagination, 1945-1961 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003), 5;
44. "From Albert Mayer," March 25, 1945, box 36.1, 1, Mayer Papers.
45. Albert Mayer, "Transplantation of Institutions in Both Directions: Examples from India and the U.S.A.," February 20, 1962, box 35.41, Mayer Papers;
46. Albert Mayer, "News Letter from Albert Mayer," June 16, 1952, box 36.6; author interview with Diana Echeverria, January 16, 2009.
47. Clarence Perry, "The Neighborhood Unit," in Michael Larice and Elizabeth Macdonald, eds., The Urban Design Reader (London: Routledge, 2007), 54-65.
48. On this work, see Mayer, Pilot Project, 20-22, 42, 126, 334, 337;
49. Tridib Banerjee, "U.S. Planning Expeditions to Postcolonial India: From Ideology to Innovation in Technical Assistance," Journal of the American Planning Association 75 (Spring 2009): 193-208.
50. Albert Mayer, "Allahabad Agricultural Institute: Memo on General Feeling and Its Reflection in Design," September 22, 1952, box 15.29, Mayer Papers;
51. Mayer, Pilot Project, 334-35;
52. also see Albert Mayer, "Some Operational Problems in Urban and Regional Planning and Development," in Roy Turner, ed., India's Urban Future (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1962), 401 .
53. Perry, "Neighborhood Unit," 55.
54. "Report on Master Plan of the New Punjab Capital," May 12, 1950, 2, box 18.30, Mayer Papers.
55. Mayer, Pilot Project, 126;
56. "News Letter," June 16, 1952.
57. "From Albert Mayer," March 25, 1945, box 36.1, 4.
58. Mayer, Pilot Project, 13;
59. "News Letter," June 16, 1952, 6.
60. Mayer, Survey Graphic, March, 1947, 390-91.
61. Mayer, Pilot Project, 103.
62. For one example, see Albert Mayer, United Nations Pamphlet (Revised), December 30, 1952, 56, box 35.14, Mayer Papers.
63. Serdari, "Albert Mayer," 268.
64. Robert J. C. Young, Postcolonialism: An Historical Introduction (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2001), 318;
65. Rebecca Klenk, "'Difficult Work': Becoming Developed," in K. Sivaramakrishnan and Arun Agrawal, eds., Regional Modernities: The Cultural Politics of Development in India (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2003), 102;
66. Banerjee, "U.S. Planning Expeditions," 196;
67. Lang et al., Architecture and Independence, 184.
68. See examples in Mayer, Pilot Project;
69. L. C. Jain, The City of Hope - The Faridabad Story (New Delhi: Concept, 1998)
70. and Alice Thorner, "Nehru, Albert Mayer, and Origins of Community Projects," Economic and Political Weekly 16 (January 24, 1981): 117;
71. also see Rural Health Section, Planning Research and Action Institute, Planning Department, Uttar Pradesh, "Village Replanning Project," box 5.12;
72. "Preliminary Outline for Village Planning and Reconstruction," December 2, 1946, box 11.12; and box 6, Mayer Papers.
73. Daniel Klingensmith, "Building India's 'Modern Temples': Indians and Americans in the Damodar Valley Corporation, 1945-1960," in Sivaramakrishnan and Agrawal, Regional Modernities, 128-29;
74. Judith M. Brown, Nehru: A Political Life (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2003), 51;
75. Gyan Prakash, ed., After Colonialism: Imperial Histories and Postcolonial Displacements (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1995), 6;
76. Young, Postcolonialism, 320.
77. On the spatial imagination of postcolonial planning, see Srirupa Roy, Beyond Belief: India and the Politics of Postcolonial Nationalism (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2007), 134-35;
78. Lang et al., Architecture and Independence, 184-85;
79. Gandhi to Nehru, October 5, 1945, in Jawaharlal Nehru, A Bunch of Old Letters (New York: Asia Publishing House, 1960), 506;
80. Prasenjit Duara, "Transnationalism and the Challenge to National Histories," in Thomas Bender, ed., Rethinking American History in a Global Age (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002), 35.
81. Shoshkes, "Jaqueline Tyrwhitt and Transnational Discourse";
82. Helen Meller, Patrick Geddes: Social Evolutionist and City Planner (London: Routledge, 1990).
83. Shoshkes, "Jaqueline Tyrwhitt and Transnational Discourse," 265-66;
84. Jaqueline Tyrwhitt, ed., Patrick Geddes in India (London: Lund Humphries, 1947), 27, 49, 64, 84, 94;
85. Meller, Patrick Geddes, 221-22;
86. Albert Mayer, "Reviewing 'Patrick Geddes in India,'" American City, October 1947, 112.
87. Matthew Nowicki, "Supplementary Notes to the Architectural Super-Block L-37," box 18.32, Mayer Papers;
88. Kalia, Chandigarh, 21, 52;
89. Banerjee, "U.S. Planning Expeditions," 197;
90. Vinita Kapur, "Learning from Chandigarh: Hybridity, Different Moments, Diverse Effects" (PhD diss., University of Pennsylvania, 2001), 38;
91. Lang et al., Architecture and Independence, 215.
92. Carl Ruff Associates, "For Immediate Release," box 23.28, 1-4, Mayer Papers.
93. Mayer to William Conklin, June 15, 1952, box 15.29; Mayer and Whittlesey office to Mayer, May 5, 1954, and Conklin to Mayer, May 4, 1954, box 15.31; Mayer, "Allahabad Agricultural Institute," September 22, 1952, box 15.29, Mayer Papers.
94. Serdari, "Albert Mayer," 221-25, and plates;
95. Jain, City of Hope, 5-8, 51, 70, 106;
96. Roy, Beyond Belief, 134.
97. Nowicki, "Supplementary Notes";
98. Kapur, "Learning from Chandigarh," 88;
99. Kalia, Chandigarh, 60, 69;
100. Kermit Carlyle Parsons, ed., The Writings of Clarence S. Stein (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998), 673.
101. See Maxwell Fry and Jane Drew, Tropical Architecture: In the Dry and Humid Zones (London: BT Batsford, 1964)
102. and J. L. Sert, "Centres of Community Life," in J. Tyrwhitt, J. L. Sert, and E. N. Rogers, eds., The Heart of the City: Towards the Humanisation of Urban Life (New York: Pellegrini and Cudahy, 1952), 3-4.
103. See Cohen and Eleb, Casablanca, 13;
104. for another version of this, see Anthony King, particularly Colonial Urban Development: Culture, Social Power and Environment (London: Routledge, 1976).
105. See Pieris, Imagining Modernity, 1-15;
106. also, Lang et al., Architecture and Independence, 188.
107. On Conklin, see Barbaralee Diamonstein, American Architecture Now II (New York: Rizzoli International, 1985), 43-51;
108. Serdari, "Albert Mayer," 18.
109. Anthony Alofsin, The Struggle for Modernism: Architecture, Landscape Architecture and City Planning at Harvard (New York: Norton, 2002), 207;
110. Ian L. McHarg, A Quest for Life (New York: John Wiley, 1996), 89;
111. Mumford, Defining Urban Design, 96.
112. Goyert, "Reston, Virginia," 62;
113. Sert, "Centres of Community Life," 11-14.
114. See Jain, City of Hope;
115. Conklin TVA reports for the Damodar Valley, box 20.10, Mayer Papers.
116. Jain, City of Hope, 124;
117. Serdari, "Albert Mayer," 146, 221-25, and plates.
118. Mayer, "Allahabad Agricultural Institute"; Mayer to Conklin, June 15, 1952.
119. "Re: Allahabad Agricultural Institute - Building Design," May 27, 1952;
120. "Orientation Study for Allahabad Agricultural Institute - Women's Hospital," December 14, 1953;
121. "Re: Allahabad Agricultural Institute," March 25, 1954, box 15.31;
122. "Minutes of Meeting Held on Nov. 5, 1954," November 26, 1954;
123. James N. Warner to Mayer, July 6, 1954, box 15.32, Mayer Papers.
124. The Ford Foundation Program Letter, "India: A Master Plan for India's Capital," February 12, 1958, box 21.19, Mayer Papers.
125. Echeverria interview; Housing and Home Finance Agency (HHFA), "Catalog of Projects of International Cooperation in Housing and Town and Country Planning" (Washington, DC: HHFA, August 1957), 40;
126. "U.S. Building Abroad," Architectural Forum (January 1955), 104;
127. George A. Dudley, "Redevelopment in El Salvador," in Burnham Kelly, ed., Housing and Economic Development: The Report of a Conference Sponsored at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology by Albert Farwell Bemis Foundation on April 30 and May 1 and 2, 1953 (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1955), 115-19;
128. "List of Books and Pamphlets That Edward G. Echeverria Is Taking to India for Office and Personal Use," April 24, 1957, box 22.29, Mayer Papers.
129. Conklin and Echeverria correspondence in box 20.32 and 21.1, Mayer Papers;
130. Ford Foundation, Urban Planning, Poverty and Governance: The Ford Foundation, 1952-2002 (New Delhi: Ford Foundation, 2002);
131. Serdari, "Albert Mayer," 5;
132. William Grimes, "James Rossant, Architect and Planner, Dies at 81," New York Times, December 18, 2009.
133. Mayer to Echeverria, February 8, 1960, box 21.6; Prototypes in box 21.11; Mayer to Douglas Ensminger, May 2, 1958, box 21.18; Mayer to Douglas Ensminger, May 1, 1958, box 21.19; "Master Plan for Delhi Region: Some Underlying or Background Notes for Consideration in Connection with Meeting with the Planning Commission on 3/21/59," 7, box 23.23, Mayer Papers;
134. Gerald Breese, Urban and Regional Planning for the Delhi-New Delhi Area (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1974), 29-31;
135. Ritu Priya, "Town Planning, Public Health and Urban Poor: Some Explorations from Delhi," Economic and Political Weekly 28 (April 24, 1993): 830, 833;
136. Delhi Development Authority, Draft Master Plan for Delhi (1960), iii;
137. on "social cities," see Buder, Visionaries & Planners, 144-45;
138. Ward, Garden City, 2, 4;
139. on "regional city," see Clarence Stein in Parsons, Writings of Clarence S. Stein, 481-82, 575.
140. Mayer to Edward Echeverria, August 12, 1957, box 21.1, Mayer Papers;
141. Harshad R. Trivedi, Housing and Community in Old Delhi: The Katra Form of Urban Settlements (Delhi: Atma Ram and Sons, 1980), 23.
142. Mayer to Echeverria, August 12, 1957; Echeverria to Mayer and Conklin May 17, 1958; Mayer to Echeverria, May 9, 1958, box 21.1, Mayer Papers.
143. Draft Master Plan, ii, 97;
144. "District Center - Schematic Prototype - Delhi Master Plan" and Mayer to Echeverria, August 8, 1959, 21.14, Mayer Papers;
145. Priya, "Town Planning";
146. Breese, Urban and Regional Planning.
147. See, for examples, Draft Master Plan; Mayer to Humayun Kabir, June 8, 1959, 21.14;
148. Douglas Ensminger, The Ford Foundation Program Letter, "India: A Master Plan For India's Capital," February 12, 1958, 21.19, Mayer Papers.
149. Mayer to Echeverria, February 8, 1960, Letters 166 and 167, 21.6; Mayer to Humayun Kabir, June 8, 1959; "District Center - Schematic Prototype - Delhi Master Plan";
150. Echeverria to Mayer, July 11, 1959; Mayer to Echeverria, June 9, 1959; Mayer to Echeverria, August 8, 1959; Echeverria to Mayer, October 29, 1959; Mayer to Echeverria, November 5, 1959, 21.14; Mayer to Douglas Ensminger, May 1, 1958; Douglas Ensminger, The Ford Foundation Program Letter, February 12, 1958, 21.19; Mayer to Nehru, July 23, 1953, 8.4, Mayer Papers.
151. Vijay Prashad, "'Shelter' in Modern Delhi," in Sivaramakrishnan and Agrawal, Regional Modernities, 143-161;
152. Ajay Mehta, The Politics of Urban Redevelopment: A Study of Old Delhi (New Delhi: Sage, 1991), 57-75;
153. Ranjit Sabikhi, "The Collapse of Planning: A Case Study of Delhi," in Alexander von Hoffman, ed., Form, Modernism, and History: Essays in Honor of Eduard F. Sekler (Cambridge, MA: Harvard Graduate School of Design, 1996), 109-21;
154. Banerjee, "U.S. Planning Expeditions," 200.
155. Priya, "Town Planning," 829;
156. Draft Master Plan, ii.
157. Banerjee, "U.S. Planning Expeditions," 202;
158. Draft Master Plan, iii.
159. Julian Whittlesey to George C. Kaplan, March 29, 1961; Conklin to Simon, April 7, 1961, box 7.10 (New Series), Conklin and Rossant Reston Project Collection, PCA; Julian Whittlesey to Robert E. Simon, April 24, 1961, May 4, 1961, November 9, 1961, box 270.4, Whittlesey and Conklin (Architects) Folder, PCA; Robert E. Simon, Jr., "Memo to File: Notes on Site Planner for Sunset Hills, VA," May 3, 1961, box 275.4, General (Architecture), PCA; on Whittlesey in India, see box 19.29 and Mayer to D.I. Ahmadi, November 23, 1948, box 17.19, Mayer Papers.
160. Conklin and Echeverria, "Memo to file re: Meeting on 6750 Acre Tract," box 11.17 (New Series), Conklin and Rossant Collection; Whittlesey to Simon, May 4, 1961, box 270.4 (Old Series), PCA.
161. Paul Grimes, "Calcutta Project Appoints Experts," New York Times, July 31, 1961.
162. Reston Master Plan Report (Fairfax County, VA: Simon Enterprises, March 10, 1962).
163. Reston Master Plan;
164. Washington Center for Metropolitan Studies, Reston, 82, 162, 170;
165. Simon Enterprises, "The Reston Story" (Fairfax: Simon Enterprises, 1963);
166. Reston, Virginia, Foundation for Community Programs, Inc., "The Need for a Community Fund in a New Town," April 13, 1967, box 9, Folder "1998 Feb. 26 Reston: Articles Relating to Reston's History for 'Selling Reston as an Open Community,' Reston Museum," Papers of Jane G. Wilhelm, Special Collections, University of Virginia Library, Charlottesville.
167. Echeverria interview; on Whittlesey later identification with Reston, see Julian H. Whittlesey, "Whittlesey Foundation Field Activities, 1974," Journal of Field Archaeology 1 (1974): 321 .
168. William J. Conklin, "Clouds over Radiant City," Architectural Record, January 1962, 97-112;
169. Mumford, Defining Urban Design, 109, 128, 138-39.
170. Kapur, "Learning from Chandigarh," 38.
171. Whittlesey and Conklin to Simon, November 22, 1961, box 7.10 (New Series);
172. "Memo to Files - Conference Concerning Reston, December 1, 1961," December 4, 1961, box 11.17 (New Series);
173. sketches in box 26.3 (New Series), Conklin and Rossant.
174. Washington Center for Metropolitan Studies, Reston, 79;
175. William H. Roehl "Memo," September 30, 1963, box 7.2 (New Series), Conklin and Rossant.
176. Reston Master Plan, 12, 14.
177. Whittlesey and Conklin to Simon, April 29, 1963, box 1.5 (New Series), Conklin and Rossant.
178. William H. Roehl, "Memo," September 30, 1963, box 7.2;
179. "Memo to Files - Density Analysis of 'First Villages' Proposal," December 26, 1961, box 7.10;
180. "Memo to File," September 30, 1963;
181. "Reston Planning meeting November 2, 1966," November 4, 1966, box 11.16 (New Series), Conklin and Rossant.
182. "Reston: An Answer to Suburban Sprawl: Urban Living in the Country," Architectural Record, July 1964, 120;
183. Julian Eugene Kulski, Land of Urban Promise (Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1967), 228;
184. "Memo to Files - Density Analysis of 'First Villages' Proposal," December 26, 1961, box 7.10 (New Series), Conklin and Rossant; Reston Master Plan; Echeverria to Mayer, July 11, 1959.
185. Frederick Gutheim, "Designing Inter-City Growth: Harvard's Sixth Urban Design Conference," Progressive Architecture, August 1962, 100;
186. Architectural Record, July 1964, 122.
187. James Rossant, "Memo to File," May 17, 1963, box 7.2 (New Series); Whittlesey and Conklin to Simon, November 22, 1961.
188. Kalia, Chandigarh, 69;
189. Kapur, "Learning from Chandigarh," 56.
190. Reston Master Plan, 5;
191. William J. Conklin, "Planning Approaches to New Towns: Focus on Reston, Virginia," Building Research, January-February 1966, 20.
192. Diamonstein, American Architecture, 46;
193. Serdari, "Albert Mayer," 172-88.
194. William J. Conklin, "Notes on the Butterfield House," New York AIA Presentation (2005), http:// www.thebutterfieldhouse.com/pdf/articles/ Conkintext.pdf (accessed December 29, 2010).
195. Washington Center for Metropolitan Studies, Reston, 49;
196. Goyert, "Reston, Virginia," 62;
197. Gutheim, "Reston," 20; Rossant to Peter Clow, May 8, 1963, box 1.5 (New Series) Conklin and Rossant;
198. "Memo to Files," December 4, 1961, box 11.17 (New Series); Simon to Heikki von Hertzen, June 20, 1966, August 9, 1966, September 1, 1966, October 13, 1966;
199. "Guest List for American Home Luncheon for Heikki von Hertzen," September 1, 1966, St. Regis Hotel; von Hertzen to Simon, October 6, 1966, October 24, 1966, all in box 504.2, Simon (Tapiola), PCA.
200. Merlin, New Towns, 2.
201. Anne W. Simon, The New Years: A New Middle Age (New York: Knopf, 1968), 5, 28;
202. Wolf von Eckardt, "Are We Being En-Gulfed?" The New Republic, December 9, 1969;
203. Washington Center for Metropolitan Studies, Reston, 362.
204. On a distillation of this point, see Klingensmith, "Building India's 'Modern Temples,'" 139;
205. on the Mayer firm in India and the New Deal, see Mayer to Nehru, February, 25, 1948, box 8.2; "A Letter from Albert Mayer," October 12, 1948, box 12.19;
206. Conklin TVA reports, box 20.10, Mayer Papers.
207. Reston Letter 4.1, 2, 1.26, PCA.
208. For examples, see Carol Lubin CV, box 446.4, Carol Lubin Biographical Material Folder, PCA; William Hamilton Roehl, "Memo to File September 23, 1965 RE: Reston Planning," box 270.4 Whittlesey & Conklin (Architects), PCA;
209. Jane G. Wilhelm, "From the Wilhelms," November 7, 1952, box 1, Folder: Correspondence 1933-1988, Wilhelm Papers.
210. Ebony, December 1966, 91-92.
211. "A Place Called Reston," 1967 Directory, PCA; Reston Letter and Reston Times coverage of residents.
212. Carol R. Lubin, "Memo to Files," November 30, 1962, box 22 Folder Reston: Research Files of William Haskett, 1961-1965, Kathryn H. Stone Papers, Special Collections, University of Virginia Library;
213. "Guests invited for luncheon December 4, 1965," box 275.1 "Presentations about Reston," PCA; Lady Bird Johnson to Robert Simon, July 15, 1967, box 266.2 "Memorabilia - letters";
214. "The Dedication of Reston," in Reston Letter 4.1 (May 1966), box 1.26;
215. Reston Letter 3.2 (September 1965), box 1.24, PCA;
216. Jane G. Wilhelm, "The Good Life in Reston: Cultural and Recreational Opportunities for Leisure" (paper, Reston Symposium, May 1985), 15, box 9, Folder "1998 Feb. 26"; Wilhelm, "April 10, 1999 Aries (The Ram)," box 9 Folder "1982-1999 Reston: Robert E. Simon Jr., Correspondence and Other Materials," Wilhelm Papers.
217. Ronald W. Marshall and Barbara A. Boyd, "Charles Goodman: Mid-Century Architect," Modernism Magazine, Winter 1998, 34-41;
218. Ronald W. Marshall and Barbara A. Boyd, "Charles Goodman: Production, Recognition, and Reflection," Modernism Magazine, Fall 1999, 41-47.
219. Reston Letter 2.1 (May 1964), 5, box 1.22, PCA.
220. See Reston Letter accounts of these residents and visitors, box 1, PCA; "International Interest in Reston, Virginia," April 1967, box 395.2, PCA; Angela J. Colasante to Conklin, June 29, 1965, box 10.6 (New Series), Conklin and Rossant.
221. Wijdan Ali, Modern Islamic Art: Development and Continuity (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1997), 47-52, 191, 195;
222. Wijdan Ali, "Modern Painting in the Mashriq," in Sherifa Zuhur, ed., Colors of Enchantment: Theater, Dance, Music, and the Visual Arts of the Middle East (Cairo: American University in Cairo Press, 2001), 372;
223. Andrew Hudson, "Peace Corps Artist Depicts Peru," Washington Post, March 20, 1966.
224. Karen Wilkin, "Gonzalo Fonseca," Institut Valencia d'Art Modern, Gonzalo Fonseca 13-III/18-V-2003 (Valencia: IVAM, 2003), 72, 78;
225. Simon interview; correspondence about Fonseca in box 233.19, Reston Sculpture Folder, PCA.
226. "Address of Ambassador Weerasinghe at Dedication of the New Town of Reston-Saturday, May 21, 1966," box 275.1, Presentations about Reston;
227. "The Dedication of Reston," Reston Letter 41, box 1.26;
228. "Platform List," box 275.1, PCA;
229. Reston Times, May 15, 1966.
230. "Speech by Robert E. Simon, Jr., President, Reston Va., Inc. at the Dedication of Reston, Virginia," box 275.1, Presentations about Reston, PCA.
231. "Pavilion at Indian Industries Fair," Architectural Design 33 (March 1963):144;
232. Ranjit Sabikhi, "Towns and Cities of Rajasthan," MARG18 (December 1964): 66;
233. "Contributors," in von Hoffman, Form, Modernism, and History;
234. Mridu Hans, "Yamuna Apartments, New Delhi," Mimar 14 (October- December 1984): 58-63;
235. "International Interest" report.
236. Pieris, Imagining Modernity, 3-4, 13, 135-45.
237. On the Gulf coup, see von Eckardt, "Are We Being En-Gulfed?"; Washington Center for Metropolitan Studies, Reston, 275-79;
238. Mayer, "Newsletter from Albert Mayer," January 5-12, 1963, box 36.11, Mayer Papers; Whittlesey to Kaplan.
239. Capital Development Authority of the United Republic of Tanzania and Conklin & Rossant, Architects and Planners, Urban Design for the National Capital Centre (June 1980), vii, ix, xi, xii, 7-10, 17, 44, 47, 51, 67-69;
240. Janet Berry Hess, Art and Architecture in Postcolonial Africa (Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2006), 124;
241. Colette Rossant, The World in My Kitchen (New York: Atria, 2006), 148.
242. Nnamdi Elleh, "Architecture and Nationalism in Africa, 1945-1994," in Okwui Enwezor, ed., The Short Century: Independence and Liberation Movements in Africa, 1945-1994 (Munich: Prestel, 2001), 238-39;
243. James C. Scott, Seeing Like a State: How Certain Schemes to Improve the Human Condition Have Failed (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1998), 257-60;
244. Lawrence Vale, Architecture, Power and National Identity (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1992), 149;
245. Diamonstein, American Architecture;
246. Ada Louise Huxtable, "When Americans Design Abroad," New York Times, June 28, 1981.
247. Sabikhi, "Collapse of Planning," 114;
248. Harry S. Jaffe and Tom Sherwood, Dream City: Race, Power, and the Decline of Washington, D.C. (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1994).
249. Robert E. Simon, Jr., "Problems of the New Town Developer," Building Research, January-February 1966, 17;
250. John Morris Dixon, "Reston," Architectural Forum, July-August 1965, 84;
251. Reston Master Plan, 6-7.
252. Reston Master Plan, 6;
253. "Open Forum Discussion," Building Research, January-February 1966, 22;
254. Washington Center for Metropolitan Studies Reston, 76;
255. Buder, Visionaries & Planners, 169.
256. Netherton, Reston, 60;
257. "Open Forum Discussion," Building Research, January-February 1966, 23;
258. Goyert, "Reston, Virginia," 21;
259. Wolf Von Eckardt, "The Community: Could This Be Our Town?" New Republic, November 7, 1964, 21;
260. The Reston Story.
261. Dixon, "Reston," 84;
262. Goyert, "Reston, Virginia," 21.
263. Ervin Galantay, "Architecture," The Nation, December 12, 1966; Simon interview.
264. Gans quote in James Bailey, ed., New Towns in America: The Design and Development Process (New York: John Wiley, 1973), 1;
265. New Communities Administration, New Communities: Problems and Potentials (Washington, DC: Department of Housing and Urban Development, December 1976), 14.
266. Albert Mayer, The Urgent Future: People, Housing, City, Region (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1967), 84;
267. Diamonstein, American Architecture, 46; Simon interview;
268. Serge Chermayeff and Alexander Tzonis, Shape of Community: Realization of Human Potential (Middlesex, UK: Penguin, 1971), 218-20;
269. The Reston Story
270. also see Ivan Chermayeff, Observations on American Architecture (New York: Viking, 1972), 106.
271. See Alan Ward, Reston Town Center: Downtown for the 21st Century (Washington, DC: Academy, 2006).
272. See Scott, Seeing Like a State;
273. Kalia, Chandigarh, 14;
274. Vijay Prashad, The Darker Nations: A People's History of the Third World (New York: New Press, 2007), 191-203;
275. Mumford, Defining Urban Design, 117;
276. on the Havana plan, also see Timothy Hyde, "Planos, Planes y Planificacion," in Eric Mumford and Hashim Sarkis, eds., Josep Lluís Sert: The Architect of Urban Design, 1953-1969 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2008), 61.
277. Milton Viorst, "Reston," Horizon 9, no. 4 (Autumn 1967), 41.