The stickup kids: Race, drugs, violence, and the American dream

The Stickup Kids: Race, Drugs, Violence, and the American Dream

Volumn , Issue , 2012, Pages

  Contreras, Randol ^a  

^a CALIFORNIA STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

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EID: 84861781778     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: None     Document Type: Book

References (540)

1. Ansley Hamid, "The Developmental Cycle of a Drug Epidemic: The Cocaine Smoking Epidemic of 1981-1991," Journal of Psychoactive Drugs 24, no. 4 (1992).
2. Joseph B. Treaster, "New York State Reports a Drop in Crack Traffick," New York Times, December 27, 1990.
3. Andrew Karmen, New York Murder Mystery: The True Story behind the Crime Crash of the 1990s (New York: New York University Press, 2000).
4. Alfred Blumstein and Joel Wallman, The Crime Drop in America (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2000).
5. Karmen, New York Murder Mystery.
6. Loic Wacquant, "The 'Scholarly Myths' of the New Law and Order Doxa," in The Socialist Register 2006: Telling the Truth, ed. Leo Panitch and Colin Leys (New York: Monthly Review Press, 2005).
7. Jack Katz, Seductions of Crime: Moral and Sensual Attractions of Doing Evil (New York: Basic Books, 1988).
8. Neal Shover and David Honaker, "The Socially Bounded Decision Making of Persistent Property Offenders," Howard Journal of Criminal Justice 31, no. 4 (1992).
9. Richard Wright and Scott H. Decker, Burglars on the Job: Streetlife and Residential Break-Ins (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1994).
10. Bruce A. Jacobs, Dealing Crack: The Social World of Streetcorner Selling (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1999).
11. Bruce A. Jacobs, Robbing Drug Dealers: Violence beyond the Law (New York: Aldine de Gruyter, 2000).
12. Bruce A. Jacobs, Volkan Topalli, and Richard Wright, "Carjacking, Streetlife, and Offender Motivation," British Journal of Criminology 43, no. 4 (2003).
13. Bruce A. Jacobs and Richard T. Wright, "Stick-up, Street Culture, and Offender Motivation," Criminology 37, no. 1 (1999).
14. Richard T. Wright and Scott H. Decker, Armed Robbers in Action: Stickups and Street Culture (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1997).
15. In his description of Black Philadelphia, Elijah Anderson does the same by opposing middle-class ideals to those of the working class and poor.
16. Elijah Anderson, Streetwise: Race, Class, and Change in an Urban Community (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990).
17. I cannot similarly criticize Jack Katz since he argues that the emotional allure of crime is equally strong across race and class groups; it just looks different.
18. It seems as if people forget how early sociologists and journalists described the urban social ills and crimes of the immigrant poor, who were of Europe an origins.
19. For instance, Frederic Thrasher's classic study of Chicago gangs in the early twentieth century found that most gangs were comprised of Europe an ethnics. "Negro" gangs, as they were called back then, made up only about 7 percent of the gang population.
20. Frederick Thrasher, The Gang: A Study of 1,313 Gangs in Chicago, 2nd ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1936).
21. C. Wright Mills, The Socio logical Imagination (New York: Oxford University Press, 1959).
22. C. Wright Mills approach, see Timothy Black, When a Heart Turns Rock Solid: The Lives of Three Puerto Rican Brothers on and off the Streets (New York: Pantheon Books, 2009).
23. Since I am little inclined to categorize myself as a certain "type" of ethnographer, I hesitate to call myself a cultural criminologist. Yet I am certainly tuned in to cultural criminology, which theoretically aims to link emotions, resistance, culture, and social context.
24. JeffFerrell, Keith Hayward, and Jock Young, Cultural Criminology: An Invitation (Los Angeles: Sage, 2008).
25. My approach also lines up with Patricia Adler's outstanding 1970s ethnography of upper-level drug dealers, which captures many of these elements.
26. Patricia Adler, Wheeling and Dealing: An Ethnography of an Upper-Level Dealing and Smuggling Community (New York: Columbia University Press, 1985).
27. Robert K. Merton, "Social Structure and Anomie," American Socio logical Review 3, no. 5 (1938).
28. Merton has been highly criticized for a later version of this strain, or anomie, theory, where he makes it seem as if only low-income groups feel a pressure to do economic crime.
29. Robert K. Merton, Social Theory and Social Structure (New York: Free Press, 1968).
30. While I wholeheartedly agree with the criticisms, I believe that his later failure does not diminish the value of his first formulation.
31. For an expanded and highly nuanced version of strain theory.
32. Robert Agnew, "An Overview of General Strain Theory," in Explaining Criminals and Crime, ed. Raymond Paternoster and Ronet Bachman (Los Angeles: Roxbury, 2001).
33. For a version that focuses on how our economic institutions dominate all other social institutions, which eases economic crimes.
34. Messner and Rosenfield, Crime and the American Dream.
35. Richard A. Cloward, "Illegitimate Means, Anomie, and Deviant Behavior," American Socio logical Review 24, no. 2 (1959).
36. Richard A. Cloward and Lloyd E.Ohlin, Delinquency and Opportunity: A Theory of Delinquent Gangs (New York: Free Press, 1960).
37. Eloise Dunlap and Bruce D. Johnson, "The Setting for the Crack Era: Macro Forces, Micro Consequences," Journal of Psychoactive Drugs 24, no. 4 (1992).
38. They were like the few New Jacks that criminologist John Hagedorn found in a Milwaukee gang, and like the Puerto Rican robber that anthropologist Philippe Bourgois found in East Harlem.
39. Philippe Bourgois, "Overachievement in the Underground Economy: The Life Story of a Puerto Rican Stick-up Artist in East Harlem," Free inquiry 25, no. 1 (1997).
40. John Hagedorn, "Homeboys, Dopefiends, Legits, and New Jacks," Criminology 32, no. 2 (1994).
41. For a general rePresentation of young people in New York City, including second-generation Dominicans.
42. Philip Kasinitz et al., Inheriting the City: The Children of Immigrants Come of Age (New York and Cambridge: Russell Sage Foundation and Harvard University Press, 2008).
43. Nancy Lopez, Hopeful Girls, Troubled Boys: Race and Gender Disparity in Urban Education (New York: Routledge, 2003).
44. Katherine S. Newman, No Shame in My Game: The Working Poor in the Inner City (New York: Knopf/Russell Sage Foundation, 1999).
45. The astronomical number of minority lockups during the 1980s and 1990s resulted from drug policies that politicians created to gain popularity among White, working-class voters.
46. Katherine Beckett, Making Crime Pay: Law and Order in Contemporary American Politics (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997).
47. Michael Tonry, Malign Neglect: Race, Crime, and Punishment in America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995).
48. Loic Wacquant, "From Slavery to Mass Incarceration," New Left Review 13 (2002).
49. This is a description of the old Yankee Stadium. A new stadium has since been built.
50. Big Punisher and featuring Fat Joe, "100%," in Yeeeah Baby (Sony Records, 2000).
51. Fernandito Villalona, "Tabaco Y Ron," in El Mayimbe (Kubaney Records, 1982).
52. Mitchell Duneier, Sidewalk (New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, 1999).
53. Sudhir Venkatesh, Gang Leader for a Day: A Rogue Sociologist Takes to the Street (New York: Penguin Books, 2008).
54. Duneier, Sidewalk.
55. Elliot Leibow, Tally's Corner: A Study of Negro Streetcorner Men (Boston: Little, Brown, 1967).
56. Sandra Harding, The Science Question in Feminism (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1986).
57. Dorothy E. Smith, Institutional Ethnography: A Sociology for People (Toronto: AltaMira Press, 2005).
58. Patricia Hill Collins, Black Feminist Thought: Knowledge, Consciousness, and the Politics of Empowerment, 2nd ed. (New York: Routledge, 2000).
59. For the record, they were not my dissertation committee members.
60. Patricia Hill Collins, Fight Words: Black Women and the Search for Justice (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1998).
61. Sudhir Venkatesh, American Project: The Rise and Fall of a Modern Ghetto (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 2000).
62. Sudhir Venkatesh, Offthe Books: The Underground Economy of the Urban Poor (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2006).
63. Venkatesh, Gang Leader for a Day. For an example of how being French created opportunities for mutual explanations by study participants and researcher.
64. Loic Wacquant, Body and Soul: Notebooks of an Apprentice Boxer (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004).
65. Loic Wacquant, "Carnal Connections: On Embodiment, Apprenticeship, and Membership," Qualitative Sociology 28, no. 4 (2005).
66. For an ethnographic example of how larger U.S. materialistic messages play out among young minority boys in the inner city.
67. Scott N. Brooks, Black Men Can't Shoot (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2009).
68. Mary E. Pattillo-McCoy, Black Picket Fences: Privilege and Peril among the Black Middle Class (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999).
69. Phillippe Bourgois, In Search of Respect: Selling Crack in El Barrio, 2nd ed. (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003).
70. Katz, Seductions.
71. Randall Collins, Violence: A Micro-Sociological Theory (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2008).
72. Although around earlier, the Reflexive move among ethnographers took a serious turn after the publication.
73. James Clifford and George E. Marcus, eds., Writing Culture: The Poetics and Politics of Writing Ethnography (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986).
74. For a recent overview of scholarly trends of the "self" in research.
75. Norman K. Denzin and Yvonee S. Lincoln, eds., Handbook of Qualitative Research, 3rd ed. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2005).
76. For a discussion of more complicated refl exivity-a combination of positional, textual, and epistemic refl exivity.
77. Pierre Bourdieu and Loic Wacquant, An Invitation to Reflexive Sociology (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992).
78. Bourgois, In Search of Respect.
79. Duneier, Sidewalk.
80. Wacquant, Body and Soul.
81. I am not referring to autoethnographers, who see exploring themselves as the central method in understanding their research.
82. For an interesting experimental text that explains autoethnography.
83. Carolyn Ellis, The Ethnographic I: A Methodological Novel about Autoethnography (New York: AltaMira Press, 2004).
84. For a moving commentary on research as "pimping,".
85. Mark S. Fleisher, "Ethnographers, Pimps, and the Company Store," in Ethnography at the Edge: Crime, Deviance, and Field Research, ed. JeffFerrell and Mark S. Hamm (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1998).
86. For an interesting commentary on research as a "hustle,".
87. Sudhir Venkatesh, "Doin' the Hustle: Constructing the Ethnographer in the American Ghetto," Ethnography 3, no. 1 (2002).
88. For an example of paying book royalties to study participants.
89. Duneier, Sidewalk.
90. U.S. Census Bureau, "Table 1: Annual Estimates of the Population for Incorporated Places over 100,000" (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Census Bureau, 2008).
91. U.S. Census Bureau, "Table B-1: Area and Population" (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Census Bureau, 2007).
92. Mayor's Press Office, "Mayor Guiliani Announces Amount of Parkland in New York City Has Passed 28,000 Acre Mark" (New York: Archives of the Mayor's Press Office, 1999).
93. New York City Department of City Planning (NYCDP), "Newest New Yorkers 2000" (New York: New York City Department of City Planning, 2004).
94. U.S. Census Bureau, "S1501, Educational Attainment" (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Census Bureau, 2006).
95. U.S. Census Bureau, "Small Area Income and Poverty Estimates" (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Census Bureau, 2008).
96. New York City Police Department (NYPD), "Compstat" 15 (9) (NYPD Compstat Unit, 2008).
97. Katz, Seductions, 247.
98. William J. Wilson, The Truly Disadvantaged: The Inner City, the Underclass, and Public Policy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987).
99. To be fair, Jack Katz has recently called attention to how historical forces have to play a larger role in urban ethnographies.
100. Jack Katz, "Time for New Urban Ethnographies," Ethnography 10, no. 2-3 (2009).
101. Michael Burawoy, Ethnography Unbound: Power and resistance in the Modern Metropolis (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991).
102. Although few ethnographers take pains to frame their research within a historical context, three outstanding examples exist.
103. Patricia Adler, Wheeling and Dealing: An Ethnography of an Upper-Level Dealing and Smuggling Community (New York: Columbia University Press, 1985).
104. Timothy Black, When a Heart Turns Rock Solid: The Lives of Three Puerto Rican Brothers on and off the Streets (New York: Pantheon Books, 2009).
105. Bourgois, In Search of Respect.
106. Jill Jones, South Bronx Rising: The Rise, Fall, and Resurrection of an American City (New York: Fordham University Press, 2002).
107. Evelyn Gonzalez, The Bronx (New York: Columbia University Press, 2004).
108. Jones, South Bronx Rising.
109. Jones, South Bronx Rising.
110. Lloyd Ultan and Gary D. Hermalyn, eds., The Bronx in the Innocent Years, 1890-1925 (New York: Harper Row, 1985).
111. Gonzalez, Bronx.
112. James L. Dietz, Economic History of Puerto Rico: Institutional Change and Capitalist Development (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1986).
113. Robert Caro, The Power Broker: Robert Moses and the Fall of New York (New York: Vintage Books, 1975).
114. Jones, South Bronx Rising.
115. Caro, Power Broker.
116. Jones, South Bronx Rising.
117. Caro, Power Broker.
118. Jones, South Bronx Rising.
119. Gonzalez, Bronx.
120. Jones, South Bronx Rising.
121. Gonzalez, Bronx.
122. The rest of this section is based on the fascinating research of Robert Fitch, The Assassination of New York (New York: Verso, 1993).
123. Jones, South Bronx Rising.
124. "Tecatos" is a label Latino residents used to identify committed heroin users. Research on Mexican gang and drug culture has many references to this label, an early example being.
125. Joan Moore, Homeboys: Gangs, Drugs, and Prisons in the Barrios of Los Angeles (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1978).
126. Jones, South Bronx Rising.
127. Gonzalez, Bronx.
128. Michael Jacobson and Philip Kasinitz, "Burning the Bronx for Profit," The Nation, November 15, 1986.
129. Jones, South Bronx Rising.
130. Jonathan Mahler, Ladies and Gentlemen, the Bronx Is Burning: 1977, Baseball, Politics, and the Battle for the Soul of the City (New York: Picador, 2006).
131. Eric Lichten, Class, Power, and Austerity: The New York City Fiscal Crisis (New York: Bergin and Garvey, 1986).
132. Raquel Z. Rivera, New York Ricans from the Hip-Hop Zone (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003).
133. On the role of the South Bronx in the development of salsa music and dance.
134. Roberta L. Singer and Elena Martinez, "A South Bronx Latin Music Tale," Centro Journal 16, no. 1 (2004).
135. Jim Rooney, Organizing the South Bronx (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1995).
136. Jones, South Bronx Rising; Rooney, Organizing the South Bronx.
137. Michael Burawoy et al., Global Ethnography: Forces, Connections, and Imaginations in a Post-Modern World (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000).
138. Zsuzsa Gille and Seán Ó Riain, "Global Ethnography," Annual Review of Sociology 28, no. 1 (2002).
139. David F. Musto, "Opium, Cocaine, Marijuana in American History," in Drugs, Crime, and Justice: Contemporary Perspectives, ed. Larry K. Gaines and Peter B. Kraska (Prospect Heights, Ill.: Waveland Press, 1997).
140. Craig Reinarman and Harry G. Levine, "Crack in Context: America's Latest Demon Drug," in Crack in America: Demon Drugs and Social Justice, ed. Craig Reinarman and Harry G. Levine (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997).
141. James A. Inciardi, The War on Drugs IV: The Continuing Saga of the Mysteries and Miseries of Intoxication, Addiction, Crime, and Public Policy (New York: Pearson, 2008).
142. Robert Sabbag, Snowblind: A Brief Career in the Cocaine Trade (New York: Grove Press, 1998).
143. Inciardi, War on Drugs IV.
144. William Adler, Land of Opportunity: One Family's Quest for the American Dream in the Age of Crack (New York: Penguin Books, 1996).
145. Inciardi, War on Drugs IV.
146. Adler, Land of Opportunity.
147. Michael Agar, "The Story of Crack: Towards a Theory of Illict Drug Trends," Addiction Research and Theory 11, no. 1 (2003).
148. Adler, Land of Opportunity, 65.
149. Agar, "Story of Crack."
150. Inciardi, War on Drugs IV.
151. Agar, "Story of Crack."
152. Michael Massing, The Fix (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1998).
153. Adler, Land of Opportunity.
154. Agar, "Story of Crack."
155. Adler, Wheeling and Dealing.
156. Ansley Hamid, "The Political Economy of Crack-Related Violence," Contemporary Drug Problems 17, no. 1 (1990).
157. Ansley Hamid, "The Developmental Cycle of a Drug Epidemic: The Cocaine Smoking Epidemic of 1981-1991," Journal of Psychoactive Drugs 24, no. 4 (1992).
158. Massing, The Fix, 166.
159. Agar, "Story of Crack."
160. Richard D. Lyons, "Cocaine Survey Points to Widespread Anguish," New York Times, January 3, 1984.
161. Massing, The Fix.
162. Margaret Engel, "Cocaine: Plea sure Fades Fast, Problems Linger," Washington Post, August 7, 1983.
163. Cynthia Gorney, "The Shackles of Cocaine; at California's Cokenders, Face to Face with Addiction," Washington Post, April 15, 1984.
164. Massing, The Fix.
165. Christian Parenti, Lockdown America: Police and Prisons in the Age of Crisis (New York: Verso, 1999).
166. Massing, The Fix, 169. Italics in the original.
167. Tonry, Malign Neglect.
168. Katherine Beckett, Making Crime Pay: Law and Order in Contemporary American Politics (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997).
169. Loic Wacquant, Punishing the Poor (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2009).
170. Adler, Land of Opportunity.
171. Inciardi, War on Drugs IV.
172. Adler, Land of Opportunity.
173. Reinarman and Levine, "Crack in Context".
174. Terry Williams, Crackhouse: Notes from the End of the Line (Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1992).
175. Adler, Wheeling and Dealing, 89.
176. Inciardi, War on Drugs IV.
177. United States Drug Enforcement Administration, "DEA History Book, 1980-1985" (http://www.justice.gov/dea/pubs/history/1980-1985.html).
178. Adler, Land of Opportunity.
179. Inciardi, War on Drugs IV.
180. Craig Reinarman et al., "The Contingent Call of the Pipe: Binging and Addiction among Heavy Cocaine Users," in Crack in America: Demon Drugs and Social Justice, ed. Craig Reinarman and Harry G. Levine (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997).
181. Agar, "Story of Crack."
182. Bruce D. Johnson and a team of researchers found that of the 658 committed crack users in their 1988 northern Manhattan sample, about 32 percent used it over four times a day.
183. Bruce D. Johnson et al., "Crack Abusers and Noncrack Abusers: Profiles of Drug Use, Drug Sales and Nondrug Criminality," Journal of Drug Issues 24, no. 1-2 (1994).
184. Agar, "Story of Crack."
185. Several observers have pointed out shortcomings in the DAWN data, but these shortcomings would not seem to question the presence of a high demand for crack.
186. Sociologists Craig Reinarman and Harry G. Levine argue, for example, that a "mention" or blood test revealing cocaine does not necessarily explain an emergency or death. First, other drugs, like alcohol, might have been present. Second, reasons other than drug use might have been responsible for injuries or death, like head traumas or accidents. Third, the monitoring failed to distinguish between powder cocaine and crack.
187. Craig Reinarman and Harry G. Levine, "The Crack Attack: Politics and Media in the Crack Scare," in Crack in America: Demon Drugs and Social Justice, ed. Craig Reinarman and Harry G. Levine (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997).
188. In a similar vein, medical professor John P. Morgan and sociologist Lynn Zimmer assert that DAWN statistics only measured cocaine's presence in patients and corpses. But they also noted that rising emergencies mentioning "cocaine" were indicators that crack use might be on the rise among the urban poor.
189. "The Social Pharmacology of Smokeable Cocaine: Not All Its Cracked up to Be," in Crack in America: Demon Drugs and Social Justice, ed. Craig Reinarman and Harry G. Levine (Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1997).
190. David R. Simon, Elite Deviance (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1999).
191. Adler, Land of Opportunity.
192. Robert Jackall, Wild Cowboys: Urban Marauders and the Forces of Order (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1997).
193. Michael Stone, Gangbusters: How a Street Tough, Elite Homicide Unit Took Down New York's Most Dangerous Gang (New York: Knopf, 2002).
194. Terry Williams, The Cocaine Kids: The Inside Story of a Teenage Drug Ring (New York: Addison-Wesley, 1989).
195. Jane Gross, "A New Purified Form of Cocaine Causes Alarm as Abuse Increases," New York Times, November 29, 1985.
196. Crystal Nix, "We're Not Going, So They Have to: The Bronx Battle Cry against Crack," New York Times, June 22, 1986.
197. Bourgois, In Search of Respect.
198. Paul Willis, Learning to Labor: How Working Class Kids Get Working Class Jobs (New York: Columbia University Press, 1977).
199. Jacobs, Dealing Crack.
200. Bruce D. Johnson, Andrew Golub, and Jeffrey Fagan, "Careers in Crack, Drug Use, Drug Distribution, and Nondrug Criminality," Crime and Delinquency 41, no. 3 (1995).
201. Jeffrey Gettleman, "Camden Again Ranked Most Dangerous," New York Times, November 27, 2005.
202. Perhaps because of embarrassment, Pablo always said that his mother received a loan from a loan shark to purchase the store. But after speaking to her personally, I learned that she filed a suit against the city, which eventually settled on making a large payment to her. She would not disclose the amount.
203. This is a fictional last name.
204. Brooks, Black Men Can't Shoot.
205. For disturbing accounts NYC public schools during Pablo's high school years.
206. Jonathan Kozol, Savage Inequalities: Children in America's Schools (New York: Harper Perennial, 1991).
207. Lopez, Hopeful Girls, Troubled Boys.
208. Ann A. Ferguson, Bad Boys: Public Schools in the Making of Black Masculinity (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2001).
209. Patricia A. Adler and Peter Adler, Backboards and Blackboards: College Athletes and Role Engulfment (New York: Columbia University Press, 1990).
210. Black, When a Heart Turns Rock Solid.
211. Alejandro Portes, Luis E. Guarnizo, and William J. Heller, "Transnational Entrepreneurs: An Alternative Form of Immigrant Economic Adaptation," American Socio logical Review 67, no. 2 (2002).
212. For a look at business ownership among Dominicans in the United States.
213. Luis E. Guarnizo, "Los Dominicanyorks: The Making of a Binational Society," Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 533, no. 1 (1994).
214. Merton, "Social Structure and Anomie".
215. Steven F. Messner and Richard Rosenfield, Crime and the American Dream (Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth, 1994).
216. Beckett, Making Crime Pay.
217. David Garland, The Culture of Control: Crime and Social Order in Contemporary Society (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2001).
218. Jock Young, "Merton wiThenergy, Katz with Structure: The Sociology of Vindictiveness and the Criminology of Transgression," Theoretical Criminology 7, no. 3 (2003).
219. Beckett, Making Crime Pay.
220. Loic Wacquant, "The Great Penal Leap Backward: Incarceration in America from Nixon to Clinton," in The New Punitiveness: Current Trends, Theories, Perspectives, ed. John Pratt et al. (London: Willan, 2005).
221. Garland, Culture of Control.
222. Massing, The Fix.
223. Parenti, Lockdown America.
224. Beckett, Making Crime Pay.
225. Tonry, Malign Neglect.
226. Beckett, Making Crime Pay.
227. Tonry, Malign Neglect.
228. An egregious example was the federal Anti-Drug Abuse Act of 1986, the now infamous 100-to-1 crack-to-powder cocaine rule.
229. Tonry, Malign Neglect.
230. Beckett, Making Crime Pay.
231. Michael Tonry, Thinking about Crime: Sense and Sensibility in American Penal Culture (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004).
232. Parenti, Lockdown America.
233. Bourgois, In Search of Respect.
234. Karmen, New York Murder Mystery.
235. Michele Sviridoffet al., "The Neighborhood Effects of Street-Level Drug Enforcement: Tactical Narcotic Teams in New York" (New York: Vera Institute of Justice, 1992).
236. Celestine Bohlen, "Jail Population Reaches a Record," New York Times, September 25, 1998.
237. Alessandra Stanley, "Rikers Melee Leaves 87 with Injuries," New York Times, July 14, 1990.
238. Sam H. Verhovek, "775 Jail Beds to Be Added in New York," New York Times, October 20, 1990.
239. Tim Golden, "Inside Rikers Island: A Bloody Struggle for Control," New York Times, September 1, 1990.
240. Martin Gottlieb, "Behind Rikers Melee: Tensions Wrought by Strain of Change," New York Times, August 20, 1990.
241. Thus Pablo's estimate, quoted earlier, exaggerated the number of cots in each jail dorm.
242. Golden, "Inside Rikers Island."
243. In 2009, some Rikers Island correction Officers were alleged to operate a secret society called "The Program," which allowed a group of detainees called "The Team" to extort and viciously assault other detainees. Joe Gould and Rich Schapiro, "Inside the Program: Secrets of Sadistic Rikers Island Society: Inmate Tells of Beatings and Sexual Humiliation," Daily News, January 25, 2009. It was also alleged that The Program was responsible for the death of Christopher Robinson, who was killed in the jail in October 18, 2008.
244. Wil Cruz, "Mom Still Angry over Son Slain in Jail," Daily News, October 18, 2009.
245. I added Manolo's account of his Rikers experience to triangulate, or to add another mea sure ment, to support Gus and Pablo's accounts. The other study participants, like Neno, Topi, and David, were too young to have experienced Rikers, at least when Pablo and Gus were detained there.
246. Later, Manolo described how during his second detainment, the phone system changed. Detainees now punched in their own code and were allowed to speak for only ten minutes at a time, making it harder for one detainee to control the phone.
247. Golden, "Inside Rikers Island."
248. Verhovek, "775 Jail Beds."
249. Black, When a Heart Turns Rock Solid.
250. Collins, Violence.
251. Golden, "Inside Rikers Island."
252. This experience supports the finding that many New York state prisoners come from the same impoverished New York City neighborhoods.
253. Karmen, New York Murder Mystery.
254. Wacquant, "From Slavery to Mass Incarceration."
255. Bruce D. Johnson, Andrew Golub, and Eloise Dunlap, "The Rise and Decline of Hard Drugs, Drug Markets, and Violence in Inner-City New York," in The Crime Drop in America, ed. Alfred Blumstein and Joel Wallman (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2000).
256. Dunlap and Johnson, "The Setting for the Crack Era."
257. "A Taste of Urban Violence Sours a Quiet Town's Sense of Security," New York Times, July 27, 1992.
258. Mary B. W. Tabor, "Migrants of the Drug World: From Brooklyn to Buffalo," New York Times, February 26, 1992.
259. Clearly, some firstgeneration crack dealers had already done this. For example, the powerful NYC Jamaican posses started crack businesses in Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Washington, D.C., and then in rural states such as Kansas, Ohio, Nebraska, and Missouri.
260. Michael Massing, "Crack's Destructive Sprint across America," New York Times, October 1, 1989.
261. "The 'New York Boys' Plead Guilty to Charges of Conspiracy to Distribute Cocaine and Money Laundering," PR Newswire, November 15, 1991.
262. David Simon and Edward Burns, The Corner: A Year in the Life of an Inner-City Neighborhood (New York: Broadway Books, 1997).
263. Though I hung out often with Alex as a teen, I never spoke with him during the research because he was in prison, sentenced to eighteen years for a robbery conviction.
264. Massing, "Crack's Destructive Sprint."
265. Ginetta E. B. Candelario, Black behind the Ears: Dominican Racial Identity from Museums to Beauty Shops (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2007).
266. Sylvio Torress-Saillant, "Introduction to Dominican Blackness," in Dominican Studies Working Papers Series 1 (New York: CUNY Dominican Studies Institute, 1999).
267. F. James Davis, Who Is Black? One Nation's Definition (University Park: Pennsylvania University Press, 1991).
268. Candelario, Black behind the Ears.
269. Collins, Black Feminist Thought.
270. Clara Rodriguez, Puerto Ricans Born in the U.S.A. (New York: Westview Press, 1989).
271. Randol Contreras, "Angustia Racial: Racial and Masculine Anguish among Drug Market Participants in the South Bronx" (under review at Du Bois Review: Social Science Research on Race).
272. David Grazian, Blue Chicago: The Search for Authenticity in Urban Blues Clubs (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2003).
273. Erving Goffman, Presentation of Self in Everyday Life (Garden City, N.Y.: Anchor, 1959).
274. Candace West and Don H. Zimmerman, "Doing Gender," Gender and Society 1, no. 2 (1987).
275. Collins, Black Feminist Thought.
276. Richard Curtis, "The Improbable Transformation of Inner-City Neighborhoods: Crime, Violence, Drugs, and Youth in the 1990's," The Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology 88, no. 4 (1998).
277. These highly visible heroin operations, though, would diminish in the coming years.
278. Beckett, Making Crime Pay.
279. Tonry, Malign Neglect.
280. Judith A. Greene, "Zero-Tolerance: A Case Study of Police Policies and Practices in New York City," Crime and Delinquency 45, no. 2 (1999).
281. Benjamin Bowling, "The Rise and Fall of New York Murder: Zero Tolerance or Crack's Decline?" British Journal of Criminology 39, no. 4 (1999).
282. Wacquant, "Scholarly Myths."
283. Andrew Karmen comes across these figures as he seeks to explain the real causes of New York City's miraculous 1990s murder drop.
284. Karmen, New York Murder Mystery.
285. For a briefer but incisive critique of "tougher policing" and its relation to the 1990s crime decline.
286. Wacquant, "Scholarly Myths."
287. Karmen, New York Murder Mystery.
288. Tonry, Thinking about Crime.
289. Karmen, New York Murder Mystery. See especially chapter 5, "The Drug Crime Connection."
290. Nix, "We're Not Going."
291. Treaster, "New York State Reports a Drop in Crack Traffick."
292. Bowling, "Rise and Fall of New York Murder."
293. Curtis, "Improbable Transformation."
294. For fascinating research regarding the shift from crack to heroin use among young St. Louis drug market participants during the 1990s.
295. Bruce A. Jacobs, "Crack to Heroin? Drug Markets and Transitions," British Journal of Criminology 39 (1999).
296. R. Terry Furst et al., "The Stigmatized Image of the Crack Head: A Sociocultural Exploration of a Barrier to Cocaine Smoking among a Cohort of Youth in New York City," Deviant Behavior 20, no. 2 (1999).
297. Lisa Maher and Richard Curtis, "Women on the Edge of Crime: Crack-Cocaine and the Changing Contexts of Street Level Sex Work in New York City," Crime, Law, and Social Change 18, no. 3 (1993).
298. Williams, Crack house.
299. Brand Nubians, "Slow Down," in One For All (Elektra Records, 1991).
300. Andrew Golub and Bruce D. Johnson, "A Recent Decline in Cocaine Use among Youthful Arrestees in Manhattan, 1987 through 1993," American Journal of Public Health 84, no. 8 (1994).
301. Bourgois, In Search of Respect; MacLeod Ain't No Makin' It.
302. I already knew Elias. Years back, when I was an early teen, I visited a girlfriend in a neighborhood several blocks away. We were spending an intimate moment in a building lobby when Elias angrily walked in on us and demanded to know why I had been "looking" at him earlier. I was baffled at his accusation and grew afraid because of his reputation and age (he was a well-known drug dealer in his mid-twenties). after calling me several nasty names-like mama huevo-he threatened to shoot me if I kept "eyeing" him. I remained silent, internally shrinking in fear and shame.
303. Seeing him repeatedly in Pablo's home over a de cade later revived that humiliating episode. Now I was older, bigger, and stronger; now he showed signs of decline because of hard living and middle age. I wanted revenge. However, Pablo constantly told me to "chill" whenever I engaged Elias in conversation that would bring back that humiliating episode. Let it go, Pablo would tell me later, he don't even remember that shit. That shit was years ago. I don't want you to fuck my shit [business] up over that bullshit. Although difficult, I respected Pablo's wishes. I wanted Pablo to make money too.
304. The intensifying social and economic pressures in this environment are consistent with Merton's formulation of "strain." Merton, "Social Structure and Anomie."
305. Expanding on Merton's notion of strain, Richard Cloward and Lloyd Ohlin point out that a person blocked from pursuing legitimate endeavors needs some kind of opportunity to create illegal paths to success. For Pablo, opportunities were clearly shrinking.
306. Cloward, "Illegitimate Means, Anomie, and Deviant Behavior".
307. Cloward and Ohlin, Delinquency and Opportunity.
308. This concept builds on the work of criminologist Jody Miller, whose research showed some female street robbers using sex to rob male victims.
309. Jody Miller, "Up It Up: Gender and the Accomplishment of Street Robbery," Criminology 36, no. 1 (1998).
310. Christopher W. Mullins and Richard Wright, "Gender, Social Networks, and Residential Burglary," Criminology 41, no. 3 (2003).
311. Wright and Decker, Armed Robbers in Action.
312. Randol Contreras, "Damn, Yo-Who's That Girl? An Ethnographic Analysis of Masculinity in Drug Robberies," Journal of Contemporary Ethnography 38, no. 4 (2009).
313. Robert Connell, Masculinities (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995).
314. James W. Messerschmidt, Masculinities and Crime: Critique and Reconceptualization of Theory (Lanham, Md.: Rowman and Littlefield, 1993).
315. Candace West and Sarah Fenstermaker, "Doing Difference," Gender and Society 9, no. 1 (1995).
316. West and Zimmerman, "Doing Gender."
317. Heath Copes and Andy Hochstetler, "Situational Construction of Masculinity among Male Street Thieves," Journal of Contemporary Ethnography 32, no. 3 (2003).
318. Christopher W. Mullins, Holding Your Square: Masculinities, Streetlife, and Violence (Portland, Ore.: Willan, 2006).
319. Philippe Bourgois and Eloise Dunlap, "Exorcising Sex-for-Crack in Harlem: An Ethnographic Perspective from Harlem," in Crack Pipe as Pimp: An Ethnographic Investigation of Sex-for-Crack Exchanges, ed. Mitchell S. Ratner (New York: Lexington, 1993).
320. Dana E. Hunt, "Drugs and Consensual Crimes: Drug Dealing and Prostitution," Crime and Justice 13 (1990).
321. James A. Inciardi, Dorothy Lockwood, and Ann E. Pottieger, eds., Women and Crack-Cocaine (New York: Macmillan, 1993).
322. Maher and Curtis, "Women on the Edge of Crime".
323. Lisa Maher and Kathleen Daly, "Women in the Street-Level Drug Economy: Continuity or Change?" Criminology 34, no. 4 (1996).
324. Mitchell S. Ratner, ed. Crack Pipe as Pimp: An Ethnographic Investigation of Sex-for-Crack Exchanges (New York: Lexington, 1993).
325. Williams, Crack house.
326. Adler, Wheeling and Dealing.
327. Maria Blom and A. H. Ton van den Berg, "A Typology of the Life and Work Styles of Heroin Prostitutes: From a Male Career Model to a Feminized Career Model," in Growing up Good: Policing the Behaviour of Girls in Eu rope, ed. Maureen Cain (London: Sage, 1989).
328. K. N. File, "Sex Roles and Street Roles," Journal of Addictions 11, no. 2 (1976).
329. Paul J. Goldstein, Prostitution and Drugs (Lexington, Mass.: Lexington, 1979).
330. Marsha Rosenbaum, Women and Heroin (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1981).
331. Maher and Daly, "Women in the Street-Level Drug Economy".
332. Thomas Mieczkowski, "The Experiences of Women Who Sell Crack: Some Descriptive Data from the Detroit Crack Ethnography Project," Journal of Drug Issues 24, no. 1 (1994).
333. Mieczkowski, "Women Who Sell Crack."
334. Phillippe Bourgois, "In Search of Horatio Alger: Culture and Ideology in the Crack Economy," Contemporary Drug Problems 16, no. 4 (1989).
335. Bourgois, In Search of Respect.
336. Kristin L. Anderson and Debra Umberson, "Gendering Violence: Masculinity and Power in Men's Accounts of Domestic Violence," Gender and Society 15, no. 3 (2001).
337. Jocelyn A. Hollander, "Vulnerability and Dangerousness: The Construction of Gender through Conversation and Violence," Gender and Society 15, no. 1 (2001).
338. Christopher W. Mullins, Richard Wright, and Bruce A. Jacobs, "Gender, Streetlife and Criminal Retaliation," Criminology 42, no. 4 (2004).
339. Darrell J. Steffensmeier and Robert M. Terry, "Institutional Sexism in the Underwold: A View from the Inside," Socio logical Inquiry 56, no. 3 (1986).
340. Katheryn Edin and Laura Lein, Making Ends Meet: How Single Mothers Survive Welfare and Low-Wage Work (New York: Russell Sage, 1997).
341. For a similar observation of strippers perceiving power over men.
342. Elizabeth A. Wood, "Working in the Fantasy Factory: The Attention Hypothesis and Enactment of Masculine Power in Strip Clubs," Journal of Contemporary Ethnography 29, no. 1 (2000).
343. Connell, Masculinities.
344. Michel Foucault, Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison (New York: Random House, 1975).
345. I purposely put this shameful moment in this chapter rather than in the methodology section, where it might be lost to readers uninterested in methods. Methodologically, it warns ethnographers of how a researcher is gendered, which can affect the way a participant interprets the researcher's motives. It also shows how some types of data collection can prompt relationship violence.
346. Later, I started having long conversations with Pablo about gender violence. In those talks, we discussed its causes and his underlying reasons for doing it. Yet while he started to understand it, he still refused to give women equal status. His traditional notion of manhood was too strong (the Bible, bro). But I can say with certainty that I later persuaded him not to do several acts of gender violence.
347. Paul J. Goldstein, "The Drugs-Violence Nexus: A Tripartite Conceptual Framework," Journal of Drug Issues 15 (1985).
348. Black, When a Heart Turns Rock Solid.
349. Paul J. Goldstein et al., "Crack and Homicide in New York City: A Case Study in the Epidemiology of Violence," in Crack in America: Demon Drugs and Social Justice, ed. Craig Reinarman and Harry G. Levine (Berkeley: University of California, 1997).
350. Jacobs, Robbing Drug Dealers.
351. Elijah Anderson, Code of the Street: Decency, Violence, and the Moral Life of the Inner City (New York: W. W. Norton and Company, 1999).
352. Jacobs, Robbing Drug Dealers.
353. For an early theoretical look at the stages of a robbery.
354. David Luckenbill, "Generating Compliance: The Case of Robbery," Urban Life 10, no. 1 (1981).
355. Philip J. Cook, "The Role of Firearms in Violent Crime," in Criminal Violence, ed. Marvin E. Wolfgang and Neil A. Weiner (Beverly Hills: Sage, 1982).
356. Katz, Seductions.
357. Ferrell, Hayward, and Young, Cultural Criminology.
358. For an interesting account of criminals needing drugs to do crime.
359. Paul F. Cromwell, James N. Olson, and D'Aunn W. Avery, Breaking and Entering: An Ethnographic Analysis of Burglary (Newbury Park, Calif.: Sage, 1991).
360. Jack Katz uses this term to describe a necessary trait for successful robbers. Here, I borrow it in reverse: as a trait drug dealers need to keep their drugs and cash from robbers.
361. Katz, Seductions.
362. For an overview of drug-selling systems.
363. Goerge F. Rengert, The Geography of Illegal Drugs (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1996).
364. Katz, Seductions, 194.
365. Erving Goffman, Interaction Rituals: Essays on Face-to-Face Behavior (New York: Doubleday, 1967).
366. Black, When a Heart Turns Rock Solid.
367. Randall Collins, personal communication.
368. Elaine Scarry, The Body in Pain: The Making and Unmaking of the World (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985).
369. But for a brief moral regression in the early twentieth-century American South.
370. David Garland, "Penal Excess and Surplus Meaning: Public Torture Lynchings in Twentieth-Century America," Law and Society Review 39, no. 4 (2005).
371. Ronald Crelinsten, "The World of Torture: A Constructed Reality," Theoretical Criminology 7, no. 3 (2003).
372. Herbert C. Kelman, "The Policy Context of Torture: A Social-Psychological Analysis," International Review of the Red Cross 87 (2005).
373. For a brief, instructive look at how government-sponsored lawyers helped the United States justify torture practices by changing torture definitions.
374. David Luban, "Liberalism, Torture, and the Ticking Time Bomb," Virginia Law Review 91, no. 6 (2005).
375. Crelinsten, "The World of Torture."
376. Luban, "Liberalism, Torture, and the Ticking Time Bomb."
377. Oliver Stone, Wall Street (Twentieth Century Fox, 1987).
378. For an early and still viable statement on excessive material consumption.
379. Thorstein Veblen, The Theory of the Leisure Class: An Economic Study of Institutions (New York: Funk and Wagnalls, 1967 [1899]).
380. For a look at how conspicuous consumption is moving away from excess materials and into cosmetic surgery, dietary supplements, healthy foods, and environment-friendly ("green") products, all expensive.
381. Michael S. Carolan, "The Conspicuous Body: Capitalism, Consumerism, Class and Consumption," Worldviews: Environment Culture Religion 9, no. 1 (2005).
382. Lawrence Mishel, Jared Bernstein, and Sylvia Allegrato, The State of Working America, 2006-2007 (Washington, D.C.: Economic Policy Institute, 2008).
383. Karl Marx, "The German Ideology," in The Marx/Engels Reader, ed. Robert C. Tucker (New York: W. W. Norton, 1978 [1846]).
384. Instance, the widely acclaimed film In Pursuit of Happyness (Sony Pictures, 2007).
385. Michael Katz, The Undeserving Poor (New York: Pantheon, 1989).
386. Daniel S. Murphy and Matthew Robinson, "The Maximizer: Clarifying Merton's Theories of Anomie and Strain," Theoretical Criminology 12, no. 4 (2008).
387. For a fascinating discussion on how greed and its resulting crime is structural (built in to) capitalist markets.
388. Laura L. Hansen and Siamak Movahedi, "Wall Street Scandals: The Myth of Individual Greed," Socio logical Forum 25, no. 2 (2010).
389. Criminologist Steven E. Barkan estimates that, annually, white-collar crime costs 716 billion dollars versus 17.1 billion dollars for street crime; in 2003, there were 113,025 white-collar work-related deaths versus 16,503 street-crime Homicides.
390. Steven E. Barkan, Criminology: A Sociological Understanding, 3rd ed. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2006.
391. For an account of horrible white-collar crimes.
392. Karen M. Hicks, Surviving the Dalkon Shield IUD: Women V. The Pharmaceutical Industry (New York: Teachers College Press, 1994).
393. Matthew Josephson, The Robber Barons: The Great American Capitalists, 1861-1901 (New York: Harcourt, Brace, and World, 1962).
394. Paul Brodeur, Outrageous Misconduct: The Asbestos Industry on Trial (New York: Pantheon Books, 1985).
395. Francis T. Cullen, Corporate Crime under Attack: The Ford Pinto Case and Beyond (Cincinnati: Anderson, 1987).
396. Stephen Labaton and Lowell Bergman, "Documents Indicate Ford Knew of Defect but Failed to Report It," New York Times, September 2000.
397. Morton Mintz, "Why the Media Cover up Corporate Crime: A Reporter Looks Back in Anger," Trial 1992.
398. Martha K. Huggins, "Moral Universes of Brazilian Torturers," Albany Law Review 67, no. 2 (2003).
399. Crelinsten, "The World of Torture".
400. Sanford Levinson, "Slavery and the Phenomenology of Torture," Social Research 74, no. 1 (2007).
401. Scarry, The Body in Pain.
402. For a discussion of the "ticking bomb" torture rationale.
403. Luban, "Liberalism, Torture, and the Ticking Time Bomb."
404. Huggins, "Moral Universes of Brazilian Torturers."
405. Crelinsten and Shmid identified three basic types of torturers: the sadist (who enjoyed giving pain), the zealot (who did what ever it took to get information), and the professional (who preferred no torture, but would engage in it after careful consideration).
406. Ronald D. Crelinsten and Alex P. Schmid, eds., The Politics of Pain: Torturers and Their Masters (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1995).
407. However, it was hard to categorize drug robbers similarly, since they all saw themselves as the "professional" type. Also, among the most violent, it was hard to determine which was a "sadist" or "zealot."
408. In their analysis of state torture, Françoise Sironi and Raphaëlle Branche argue that kindness after torture is a psychological tactic used to further disorient the victim.
409. Françoise Sironi and Raphaëlle Branche, "Torture and the Borders of Humanity," International Social Science Journal 54, no. 174 (2002).
410. However, since the larger aims of drug robbery torture and state torture are different (the latter wanting a lasting impact on the victim and to terrorize the victim's group), I could not apply this analysis to Gus.
411. David Matza and Gresham Sykes, "Techniques of Neutralization: A Theory of Delinquency." American Socio logical Review 22, no. 6 (1957).
412. Collins, Violence.
413. Anderson, Code of the Street.
414. Marvin Wolfgang and Franco Ferracuti, The Subculture of Violence: Towards an Integrated Theory of Criminology (London: Tavistock, 1967).
415. Collins, Violence.
416. Anderson, Code of the Street.
417. Collins, Violence.
418. Katz, Seductions.
419. Collins, Violence.
420. However, I would not argue that all police violence results only from emotional momentum or a forward panic. Perhaps race and class inequalities can inform a forward panic, which leads to more extraordinary violence against Black suspects versus White suspects, a Black street corner man versus a White politician or a well-known celebrity.
421. For instance, the drawn-out police chase involving Black celebrity O. J. Simpson did not end in a Rodney King-style police beating. O.J. was famous and, for that moment, still respected. Thus, police Officers checked their emotions.
422. Collins, Violence.
423. For a discussion of how violent robbers progress from petty to dangerous crimes.
424. Katz, Seductions.
425. Collins, Violence.
426. Bourgois, "Overachievement in the Underground Economy."
427. "Sammy the Bull" (real name, Salvatore Gravano) was an underboss in the Gambino crime family who was involved in numerous murders and famous for later helping law enforcement bring down the Gambino family.
428. Lonnie Athens, Violent Criminal Acts and Actors Revisited (Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1997).
429. Collins, Violence.
430. Athens, Violent Criminal Acts.
431. Katz, Seductions.
432. Collins, Violence, 4.
433. To be fair, Collins does say that this book is the first part of a twovolume series. The second book "expands the frame to what has been left out . . . institutionalized violence . . . meso-and macro-organizations . . . geopolitics" (34).
434. Danielle L. McGuire, "It's Like All of Us Had Been Raped: Sexual Violence, Community Mobilization, and the African American Freedom Struggle," Journal of American History 91, no. 3 (2004).
435. For a sobering historical account during the slavery period.
436. Edward E. Baptist, " 'Cuffy,' 'Fancy Maids,' and 'One-Eyed Men': Rape, Commodification, and the Domestic Slave Trade in the United States," The American Historical Review 106, no. 5 (2001).
437. Jasbir K. Puar, Assemblages: Homonationalism in Queer Times (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2007).
438. James W. Messerschmidt, "Men Victimizing Men: The Case of Lynching, 1865-1900," in Masculinities and Violence, ed. Lee H. Bowker (Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage, 1998).
439. For a disturbing yet illuminating account of southern lynchings.
440. Garland, "Penal Excess and Surplus Meaning." 44.
441. Jasbir K. Puar, "On Torture: Abu Ghraib," Radical History Review, no. 93 (2005).
442. Mark Danner, "The Logic of Torture," in Abu Ghraib: The Politics of Torture, ed. Mark Danner (Berkeley, Calif.: NorThatlantic, 2004).
443. Mark Danner, "Torture and Truth," in Abu Ghraib: The Politics of Torture, ed. Mark Danner (Berkeley, Calif.: NorThatlantic, 2004).
444. Puar, "On Torture."
445. Danner, "The Logic of Torture".
446. Danner, "Torture and Truth".
447. Seymour Hersh, "The Grey Zone," New Yorker, May 24, 2004.
448. Puar, "On Torture."
449. For a disturbing account of how the U.S. military treated female detainees, especially as to rape and sexual humiliation.
450. Luke Harding, "The Other Prisoners," Guardian, May 20, 2004.
451. At the scandal's height, top U.S. government and military officials made the affair seem like the sadistic doings of a few untrained, unstable soldiers. However, journalist Seymour Hersh uncovered the torture's source: a controversial 1973 book entitled The Arab Mind, written by cultural anthropologist Raphael Patai. The book captivated U.S. intelligence, especially a chapter describing homosexuality as a grave taboo in Arab culture. According to Patai, its discovery would not only cause shame in the guilty party, but also among close family and friends. Sexually humiliating torture, then, became the way to handle Arab detainees.
452. Hersh, "The Grey Zone".
453. Raphael Patai, The Arab Mind, rev. ed. (New York: Scribner, 1983).
454. For a concise review of the book's many critiques.
455. Ann Marlow, "Sex, Violence, and the Arab Mind" (Salon.com.http://dir.salon.com/books/feature/2004/06/08/arab_mind, 2004).
456. Quoted in Puar, "On Torture," 20.
457. Judith Butler, Subjects of Desire (New York: Columbia University Press, 1999).
458. Puar, "On Torture."
459. Similarly, Abner Louima, a Haitian immigrant, was sodomized with a toilet plunger by an angry White police Officer in a Brooklyn police precinct.
460. Mike McAlary, "The Frightful Whisperings from a Coney Island Hospitable Bed," Daily News, August 13, 1997.
461. James Messerschmidt, Masculinities and Crime: Critique and Reconceptualization of Theory (Lanham, Md.: Rowman and Littlefield, 1993).
462. James Messerschmidt, Crime as Structured Action: Gender, Race, Class, and Crime in the Making (Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage).
463. Copes and Hochstetler, "Situational Construction of Masculinity."
464. Dorothy E. Smith, The Everyday World as Problematic: A Feminist Sociology (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1987).
465. Grand Master Flash and Melle Mel, "White Lines (Don't Don't Do It)" (Sugarhill Records, 1983).
466. Anderson, Code of the Street.
467. Bourgois, In Search of Respect.
468. Collins, Violence.
469. Edwin Sutherland, The Professional Thief (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1937).
470. Werner J. Einstadter, "The Social Organization of Armed Robbers," Social Problems 17, no. 1 (1969).
471. Black, When a Heart Turns Rock Solid.
472. Shover and Honaker, "Socially Bounded Decision Making".
473. Wright and Decker, Burglars on the Job.
474. Jacobs, Dealing Crack.
475. Jacobs, Robbing Drug Dealers.
476. Jacobs, Topalli, and Wright, "Carjacking, Streetlife, and Offender Motivation".
477. Jacobs and Wright, "Stick-up, Street Culture, and Offender Motivation".
478. Wright and Decker, Armed Robbers in Action.
479. Mike Collison, "In Search of the High Life: Drugs, Crime, Masculinities and Consumption," British Journal of Criminology 36, no. 3 (1996).
480. Likewise Mr. Conwell, an early twentieth-century professional thief, observed that "it is very common when a [thieving] mob is cutting up (dividing the proceeds of) a day's work to suggest sending a part of it to some member of the profession, not necessarily one of the mob, who is doing a bit (prison sentence). . . . Thieves are glad to be able to send it, as it is the only way they have of expressing their friendship and continued memory of him."
481. Sutherland, Professional Thief, 7-8.
482. Freddy, who used to be Gus' "brother-in-law" (Gus had a child with his sister), was well versed in street robberies, muggings, and shootings. Every now and then, he dropped by Sylvio's bar to hang out with Gus and learn of new criminal opportunities.
483. In his study of Puerto Rican crack dealers, Bourgois faced a similar problem with an upper-level crack dealer who needed his cultural capital to navigate the legal world.
484. Bourgois, In Search of Respect.
485. Devah Pager, "The Mark of a Criminal Record," American Journal of Sociology 108 (2003).
486. Joan Petersilia, When Prisoners Come Home: Parole and Prisoner Reentry (New York: Oxford University Press, 2003).
487. A shocking example occurred in 2000, when New York State denied one ex-Offender a license to cut hair. He had learned the trade in prison and wanted to make it a legal career.
488. Clyde Haberman, "He Did Time, So He's Unfit to Do Hair," New York Times (nytimes.com), March 4, 2005.
489. Bruce Western, Jeffrey Kling, and David Weiman, "The Labor Market Consequences of Incarceration," Crime and Delinquency 47, no. 4 (2001).
490. Petersilia, When Prisoners Come Home.
491. Pager, "The Mark of a Criminal Record."
492. Black, When a Heart Turns Rock Solid.
493. Howard Becker, Outsiders: Studies in the Sociology of Deviance (New York: Free Press, 1963).
494. Petersilia, When Prisoners Come Home.
495. I changed the exact membership cost and commission because it was the same as the one found in the money-making program he ordered. However, the numbers I listed are not too far off.
496. Mishel et al., "The State of Working America, 2008/2009."
497. Mills, Socio logical Imagination.
498. Clearly, fallen stars can be found across social strata and occupational fields. However, since my fieldwork involved criminality, I can only speak to the phenomenon in this sphere.
499. Emile Durkheim, Suicide: A Study in Sociology (New York: Free Press, 1997 [1897]).
500. In his classic study, Emile Durkheim identified three other forms of suicide: egoistic suicide, which is associated with inadequate social bonds to the group.
501. altruistic suicide, which is associated with a powerful social bond or a strong commitment to the group.
502. Fatalistic suicide, which is associated with oppressive regulation (e.g., slavery).
503. Merton, "Social Structure and Anomie."
504. Bourgois, In Search of Respect.
505. Emile Durkheim, Rules of the Socio logical Method (New York: Free Press, 1982 [1895]).
506. Katz, Seductions.
507. Timothy Black also reported a study participant who mentioned that prison life was more predictable and structured, and thus easier, than life outside.
508. Black, When a Heart Turns Rock Solid.
509. Emile Durkheim, The Elementary Forms of Religious Life (New York: Free Press, 1995 [1912]).
510. Mills, Socio logical Imagination.
511. David A. Shirk, "Drug Violence in Mexico: Data and Analysis from 2001-2009" (San Diego: Trans-Border Institute, 2009).
512. Traci Carl, "Progress in Mexico Drug War Is Drenched in Blood," Associated Press, November 11, 2009.
513. Shirk, "Drug Violence in Mexico."
514. Carl, "Mexico Drug War."
515. For a look into how Mexican Norteño musicians are sometimes killed for the once accepted practice of glorifying Traffickers through folk songs.
516. Dangerous Music (Borderland Pictures Production, 2009).
517. Shover and Honaker, "Socially Bounded Decision Making".
518. Wright and Decker, Burglars on the Job.
519. Jacobs, Dealing Crack.
520. Jacobs, Robbing Drug Dealers.
521. Jacobs, Topalli, and Wright, "Carjacking, Streetlife, and Offender Motivation".
522. Jacobs and Wright, "Stick-up, Street Culture, and Offender Motivation".
523. Wright and Decker, Armed Robbers in Action.
524. Jacobs, Robbing Drug Dealers, 144.
525. Wacquant, Punishing the Poor.
526. Loic Wacquant, "Class, Race, and Hyperincarceration in Revanchist America," Daedalus 140, no. 3 (2010).
527. Loic Wacquant, "The Wedding of Workfare and Prisonfare Revisited," Social Justice 38 (2011).
528. Steven D. Levitt and Stephen J. Dubner, Freakonomics: A Rogue Economist Explores the Hidden Side of Everything (New York: HarperCollins, 2005).
529. William Bennett, Morning in America (Radio Broadcast, 2005).
530. Mishel, Bernstein, and Allegrato, "The State of Working America, 2006-2007."
531. Don Peck, "How a New Jobless Era Will Transform America," The Atlantic, March 2010.
532. Craig Reinarman and Harry G. Levine, "Crack in the Rearview Mirror: Deconstructing Drug War Mythology," Social Justice 31, no. 1-2 (2004).
533. Massing, The Fix.
534. Tonry, Malign Neglect.
535. Stephen R. Fox, Blood and Power: Organized Crime in Twentieth Century America (New York: William Morrow, 1989).
536. Harvey A. Siegel and James A. Inciardi, "A Brief History of Alcohol," in The American Drug Scene: An Anthology, ed. James A. Inciardi and Karen McElrath (2004).
537. Massing, The Fix.
538. Stacy Burling, "Candidates Seek Area Tea Party's Support at Rally," The Philadelphia Inquirer, April 18, 2010.
539. Tonry, Thinking about Crime.
540. Katie Zernike, "Doing Fine, but Angry Nonetheless," New York Times, April 18, 2010.