An epidemic of coronary heart disease

QJM: An International Journal of Medicine

Volumn 105, Issue 6, 2012, Pages 509-518

  Grimes, D S ^a  

^a ROYAL BLACKBURN HOSPITAL   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ACETYLSALICYLIC ACID; CHOLESTEROL; EZETIMIBE; HYDROCHLOROTHIAZIDE; LISINOPRIL; SIMVASTATIN; STREPTOKINASE;

ACQUIRED IMMUNE DEFICIENCY SYNDROME; ANGINA PECTORIS; ASTHMA; ATHEROSCLEROSIS; AUTOPSY; BLOOD CLOT LYSIS; BLOOD PRESSURE REGULATION; CANCER MORTALITY; CHLAMYDIAL PNEUMONIA; CHOLESTEROL BLOOD LEVEL; CIGARETTE SMOKING; ENVIRONMENTAL FACTOR; EPIDEMIC; HEART INFARCTION; HUMAN; HYPERCHOLESTEROLEMIA; HYPERTENSION; INCIDENCE; ISCHEMIC HEART DISEASE; MEDICAL PROFESSION; MORTALITY; NATIONAL HEALTH SERVICE; NON INSULIN DEPENDENT DIABETES MELLITUS; PREVALENCE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RESUSCITATION; REVIEW; STROKE; SURVIVAL; SWEDEN; TUBERCULOSIS; UNITED KINGDOM; WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION;

EID: 84861737956     PISSN: 14602725     EISSN: 14602393     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/qjmed/hcr265     Document Type: Review

References (68)

1. Johanss BW, Nicol PA. Swedish report on acute myocardial infarction in 1859. BMJ, 284: 1982, 888-9.
2. Wales AE, Shafer J. Sir James MacKenzie: the Burnley years. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1033731/pdf/medhist00146-0091.pdf (4 January 2012, date last accessed).
3. MacKenzie J. Diseases of the Heart. London, Oxford University Press, Hodder & Stoughton, 1913.
4. MacKenzie J. Angina Pectoris. London, Henry Frowde, Hodder & Stoughton, 1923.
5. Osler W. Principles and Practice of Medicine. London, Appleton, 1912:836.
6. Herrick JB. Clinical features of sudden obstruction of the coronary arteries. JAMA, 59: 1912, 2015-20.
7. Herrick JB, Nuzum FR. Angina pectoris: clinical experience with two hundred cases. JAMA, 10: 1918, 67-70.
8. Herrick JB. Thrombosis of the coronary arteries. JAMA, 72: 1919, 387-90.
9. Campbell M. Death rates from diseases of the heart: 1876 to 1959. BMJ 1963; ii:528-35.
10. Unal B, Critchley JA, Capewell S. Explaining the decline in coronary heart disease mortality in England and Wales between 1981 and 2000. Circulation, 109: 2004, 1101-7.
11. Florey C de V, Melia RJW, Darby SC. Changing mortality from ischaemic heart disease in Great Britain 1968-76. BMJ, 1: 1978, 635-7.
12. Campbell M. The main cause of increased death rate from diseases of the heart: 1920-1959. BMJ 1963; ii:712-7.
13. US Department of Commerce 1980. Statistical abstract of the United States 1980. Washington DC, US Government Printing Office, 1980(As quoted by Stehbens WE. The hypothetical epidemic of coronary heart disease and atherosclerosis. Medical Hypotheses, 45: 1995, 449-54 [14]).
14. Stehbens WE. The hypothetical epidemic of coronary heart disease and atherosclerosis. Medical Hypotheses, 45: 1995, 449-54.
15. Robb-Smith AHT. The Enigma of Coronary Heart Disease. London, Lloyd-Luke, 1967.
16. Stehbens WE. An appraisal of the epidemic rise of coronary heart disease and its decline. Lancet, 329: 1987, 606-10.
17. Springett VH. Tuberculosis - epidemiology in England and Wales. BMJ, 1: 1972, 422-3.
18. Macintyre K, Stewart S, Chalmers J, Pell J, Finlayson A, Boyd J, et al. Relation between socioeconomic deprivation and death from first myocardial infarction in Scotland: population based analysis. BMJ, 322: 2001, 1152-3.
19. Barakat K, Stevenson S, Wilkinson P, Suliman A, Ranjadayalan K, Timmis AD. Socioeconomic differentials in recurrent ischaemia and CHD mortality after acute myocardial infarction. Heart, 85: 2001, 390-94.
20. Marmot MG, Shipley MJ, Rose G. Inequalities in death: specific explanations of a general pattern? Lancet, 323: 1984, 1003-6.
21. Stamler J. The marked decline in coronary heart disease mortality rates in the United States, 1968-1981; summary of findings and possible explanations. Cardiology, 72: 1985, 11-22.
22. Kunst AE, Amiri M, Janssen F. The decline in stroke mortality. Exploration of future trends in 7 western European countries. Stroke, 42: 2011, 2126-30.
23. National Institutes of Health. National Conference on Health Research Principles, 3 an 4 October, 1978: conference report. Bethesda, Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service, National Institutes of Health, 1978.
24. Tunstall-Pedoe H, Kuulasmaa K, Amouyel P, Arveiler D, Rajakanyas AM, Pajak A. Myocardial infarction and coronary deaths in the World Health Organization MONICA project. Circulation, 90: 1994, 582-612.
25. UK Department of Health. The National Service Framework for Coronary Heart Disease: Winning the War on Heart Disease. London, The Stationary Office, 2004.
26. Appleby J. Does poor health justify NHS reform? Brit Med J 2011; 342:10(d566).
27. Scandinavian Simvastatin Survival Study Group. Randomised controlled trial of cholesterol lowering in 4444 patients with coronary heart disease: the Scandinavian Simvastatin Survival Study (4S). Lancet, 344: 1994, 1383-9.
28. Shepherd J, Cobbe SM, Ford I, Isles CG, Lorimer AR, MacFarlane PW, et al. for the West of Scotland Coronary Prevention Group. Prevention of coronary heart disease with pravastatin in men with hypercholesterolaemia. N Engl J Med, 333: 1995, 1301-7.
29. Second International Study of Infarct Survival Collaborative Group. Randomised Trial of intravenous streptokinase, oral aspirin, both, or neither among 17 187 cases of suspected acute myocardial infarction: ISIS-2. Lancet, 332: 1988, 349-60.
30. Tunstall-Pedoe H, Kuulasmaa K, Mähönen M, Tolonen H, Ruokokoski E, Amouyel P. Contribution of trends in survival and coronary-event rates to changes in coronary heart disease mortality: 10-year results from 37 WHO MONICA Project populations. Lancet, 353: 1999, 1547-57.
31. Office for National Statistics. Births and Deaths in England and Wales 2009. Statistical Bulletin. UK Government; 21 July 2010. Crown Copyright.
32. Office for National Statistics. Centenarians: number of centenarians grows. Population estimates for UK, England and Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland. UK Government; 30 September 2010. Crown Copyright.
33. Anderson KM, Castelli WP, Levy D. Cholesterol and mortality: 30 years of follow-up from the Framingham study. JAMA, 257: 1987, 2176-80.
34. Forette B, Tortrat D, Wolmark Y. Cholesterol as risk factor for mortality in elderly women. Lancet 1989; 333: 868-70.
35. Krumholtz HM, Seeman TE, Merrill SS, Mendes de Leon CF, Vaccarino V, Silverman DI, et al. Lack of association between cholesterol and coronary heart disease mortality and morbidity and all-cause mortality in persons older than 70 years. JAMA, 272: 1994, 1335-40.
36. Schatz IJ, Masaki K, Yano K, Chen R, Rodriguez BL, Curb JD. Cholesterol and all-cause mortality in elderly people from the Honolulu Heart Program: a cohort study. Lancet, 358: 2001, 351-55.
37. Claxton AJ, Jacobs DR Jr, Iribarren C, Welles SL, Sidney S, Feingold KR. Association between serum total cholesterol and HIV infection in a high-risk cohort of young men. Journal of Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndromes and Human Retrovirology, 17: 1998, 51-7.
38. Iribarren C, Jacobs DR Jr, Sidney S, Claxton AJ, Gross MD, Sadler M, et al. Serum total cholesterol and risk of hospitalization, and death from respiratory disease. Int J Epidemiol, 26: 1997, 1191-202.
39. Pacelli F, Doglietto GB, Alfieri S, Piccioni E, Sgaradi A, Gui D, et al. Prognosis in intra-abdominal infections. Multivariate analysis on 604 patients. Arch Surg, 131: 1996, 641-45.
40. Rose G, Blackburn H, Keys A, Taylor HL, Kanel WB, Paul O, et al. Colon cancer and cholesterol. Lancet, 1: 1974, 181-83.
41. Dyker AG, Weir CJ, Lees KR. Influence of cholesterol on survival after stroke: retrospective study. BMJ, 314: 1997, 1584-8.
42. Mayor S. Four in one polypill halves predicted cardiovascular risk, international study shows. BMJ 2011; 342:1229 (d3355).
43. PILL Collaborative Group. An international randomised placebo-controlled trial of a four-component combination pill ("Polypill") in people with raised cardiovascular risk. PLoS ONE 2011; 65e19857.
44. Polak JF, Pencina MJ, Pencina KM, O'Donnell CJ, Wolf PA, D'Agostino RB Sr. Carotid-wall intima-media thickness and cardiovascular events. N Engl J Med, 365: 2011, 213-21.
45. Forsdahl A. Are poor living conditions in childhood and adolescence an important risk factor for arteriosclerotic heart disease? Br J Prevent Social Med, 31: 1977, 91-95.
46. Barker DJP, Osmond C. Infant mortality, childhood nutrition, and ischaemic heart disease in England and Wales. Lancet, 327: 1986, 1077-81.
47. Kaplan GA, Salonen JT. Socioeconomic conditions in childhood and ischaemic heart disease during middle age. BMJ, 301: 1990, 1121-23.
48. Norheim O, Gjelsvik B, Klemsdal TO, Madsen S, Meland E, Narvesen S, et al. Norway's new principles for primary prevention of cardiovascular disease: age differentiated risk thresholds. BMJ, 343: 2011, 132-35 (d3626).
49. Veterans Administration Cooperative Study on Antihypertensive Agents. Effects of treatment on morbidity in hypertension. JAMA, 213: 1970, 1143-52.
50. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 2011; 60: 1377-81. Reported by Fang J, Shaw KM, Keenan NL. JAMA, 306: 2011, 2084-86.
51. http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/guidelines/cvd_ped/ Reported in The Lancet 2011; 378:1826.
52. Sundquist K, Winkleby J, Li X, Ji J, Hemmenki K, Sundquist J. Familiar transmission of coronary heart disease: a cohort study of 80,214 Swedish adoptees linked to their biological and adoptive parents. Am Heart J, 162: 2011, 317-23.
53. Sijbrands EJG, Westendorp RGJ, Defesche JC, de Meier PHEM, Smelt AHM, Kastelstein JJP. Mortality over two centuries in a large pedigree with familial hypercholesterolaemia: family tree mortality study. Brit Med J, 322: 2001, 119-23.
54. Ravnskov U, McCully KS. Vulnerable plaque formation from obstruction of vas vasorum by homocysteinylated and oxidized lipoprotein aggregates complexed with microbial remnants and LDL autoantibodies. Ann Cli Lab Science, 39: 2009, 3-16.
55. Adams DD. The great cholesterol myth; unfortunate consequences of Brown and Goldstein's mistake. QJM, 104: 2011, 867-70.
56. Grimes DS. History of the cholesterol hypothesis in Britain. QJM, 102: 2009, 436-8.
57. Kastelein JJP, Akdim F, Stroes ESG, Zwinderman AH, Bots ML, Stalenhoef AF, et al. Simvastatin with or without ezetimibe in familial hypercholesterolaemia. N Engl J Med, 358: 2008, 1431-43.
58. Mascitelli L, Pezzetta F, Goldstein MR. Role of ezetimibe in the prevention of cardiovascular disease: absence of evidence. Arch Med Res., 41: 2010, 649-50.
59. Vaughan CJ, Murphy MB, Buckley BM. Statins do more than just lower cholesterol. Lancet, 348: 1996, 1079-82.
60. Kodach LL, Jacobs RJ, Voorneveld PW, Wildenberg ME, Verspaget HW, van Wezel T, et al. Statins augment the chemosensitivity of colorectal cancer cells inducing epigenetic reprogramming an reducing colorectal cancer cell 'stemness' via the bone morphogenetic protein pathway. GUT, 60: 2011, 1544-53.
61. Benditt EP, McDougall JK. Viruses and vascular disease. Cardiology in Practice, 7: 1989, 34-39.
62. Cunningham MJ, Pasternak RC. The potential of viruses in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis. Circulation, 77: 1988, 964-66.
63. Saikku P, Leinonen M, Mattila K, Ekma M-R, Nieminen MS, Mäkelä PH, et al. Serological evidence of an association of a novel Chlamydia, TWAR, with chronic coronary heart disease and myocardial infarction. Lancet 1988; 332: 983-85.
64. Taylor-Robinson D, Thomas BJ. Chlamydia pneumoniae in arteries: the facts, their interpretation, and future studies. J Clin Path, 51: 1998, 793-97.
65. Ainsworth C. I am legion. New Scientist, 210: 2011, 43-5.
66. Reddy KS. Cardiovascular disease in non-western countries. N Eng J Med, 350: 2004, 2438-40.
67. Mozaffarian D, Capewell S. UN's dietary policies to prevent cardiovascular disease. BMJ 2011; 343:546(d5747).
68. Anand SS, Yusuf S. Stemming the global tsunami of cardiovascular disease (Editorial). Lancet, 377: 2011, 529-32.