Management of children exposed to multidrug-resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis

The Lancet Infectious Diseases

Volumn 12, Issue 6, 2012, Pages 469-479

  Seddon, James A ^a,b   Godfrey Faussett, Peter ^a   Hesseling, Anneke C ^b   Gie, Robert P ^b   Beyers, Nulda ^b   Schaaf, H Simon ^b  

^a LONDON SCHOOL OF HYGIENE AND TROPICAL MEDICINE   (United Kingdom)

^b UNIVERSITY OF STELLENBOSCH   (South Africa)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

6,7 DIHYDRO 2 NITRO 6 (4 TRIFLUOROMETHOXYBENZYLOXY) 5H IMIDAZO[2,1 B][1,3]OXAZINE; BEDAQUILINE; CIPROFLOXACIN; DELAMANID; ETHAMBUTOL; ETHIONAMIDE; ISONIAZID; LEVOFLOXACIN; OFLOXACIN; PROTIONAMIDE; PYRAZINAMIDE;

ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE; ARTHRALGIA; BACTERIAL STRAIN; CHILD CARE; CONFUSION; DISEASE COURSE; GASTROINTESTINAL SYMPTOM; HEADACHE; HEPATITIS; HUMAN; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS INFECTION; HYPERSENSITIVITY; HYPERURICEMIA; HYPOGLYCEMIA; HYPOTHYROIDISM; IMMUNE SYSTEM; INFECTION RISK; INFECTION SENSITIVITY; INSOMNIA; METALLIC TASTE; MORBIDITY; MORTALITY; MULTIDRUG RESISTANCE; MYALGIA; MYCOBACTERIUM TUBERCULOSIS; NONHUMAN; OPTIC NEURITIS; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PATIENT COMPLIANCE; PERIPHERAL NEUROPATHY; PHOTOSENSITIVITY; PRACTICE GUIDELINE; PREVENTIVE MEDICINE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RASH; RESTLESSNESS; REVIEW; TASTE DISORDER; TREATMENT PLANNING; TUBERCULOSIS;

ANTITUBERCULAR AGENTS; CHILD; HIV INFECTIONS; HUMANS; MYCOBACTERIUM TUBERCULOSIS; POST-EXPOSURE PROPHYLAXIS; PRACTICE GUIDELINES AS TOPIC; TUBERCULOSIS, MULTIDRUG-RESISTANT;

EID: 84861344866     PISSN: 14733099     EISSN: 14744457     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/S1473-3099(11)70366-8     Document Type: Review

References (145)

1. Multidrug and extensively drug-resistant TB (M/XDR-TB) 2010 Global report on surveillance and response (WHO/HTM/TB/20103) 2010, WHO, World Health Organization, Geneva.
2. Gandhi NR, Moll A, Sturm AW, et al. Extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis as a cause of death in patients co-infected with tuberculosis and HIV in a rural area of South Africa. Lancet 2006, 368:1575-1580.
3. Guidlelines for the programmatic management of drug-resistant tuberculosis-Emergency update (WHO/HTM/TB/2008.402) 2008, WHO, World Health Organization, Geneva.
4. Blumberg HM, Leonard MK, Jasmer RM Update on the treatment of tuberculosis and latent tuberculosis infection. JAMA 2005, 293:2776-2784.
5. Lin PL, Flynn JL Understanding latent tuberculosis: a moving target. J Immunol 2010, 185:15-22.
6. This official statement of the American Thoracic Society and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention was adopted by the ATS Board of Directors, July 1999. This statement was endorsed by the Council of the Infectious Diseases Society of America, September 1999. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2000, 161:1376-1395. Diagnostic Standards and Classification of Tuberculosis in Adults and Children.
7. Schaaf HS, Gie RP, Kennedy M, et al. Evaluation of young children in contact with adult multidrug-resistant pulmonary tuberculosis: a 30-month follow-up. Pediatrics 2002, 109:765-771.
8. Farhat M, Greenaway C, Pai M, Menzies D False-positive tuberculin skin tests: what is the absolute effect of BCG and non-tuberculous mycobacteria?. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 2006, 10:1192-1204.
9. Graham NM, Nelson KE, Solomon L, et al. Prevalence of tuberculin positivity and skin test anergy in HIV-1-seropositive and -seronegative intravenous drug users. JAMA 1992, 267:369-373.
10. Hesseling AC, Mandalakas AM, Kirchner HL, et al. Highly discordant T cell responses in individuals with recent exposure to household tuberculosis. Thorax 2009, 64:840-846.
11. Pai M, Zwerling A, Menzies D Systematic review: T-cell-based assays for the diagnosis of latent tuberculosis infection: an update. Ann Intern Med 2008, 149:177-184.
12. Machingaidze S, Wiysonge CS, Gonzalez-Angulo Y, et al. The utility of an interferon gamma release assay for diagnosis of latent tuberculosis infection and disease in children: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2011, 30:694-700.
13. Mandalakas AM, Detjen AK, Hesseling AC, Benedetti A, Menzies D Interferon-gamma release assays and childhood tuberculosis: systematic review and meta-analysis. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 2011, 15:1018-1032.
14. Huang YW, Shen GH, Lee JJ, Yang WT Latent tuberculosis infection among close contacts of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis patients in central Taiwan. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 2010, 14:1430-1435.
15. Mazurek GH, Jereb J, Vernon A, et al. Updated guidelines for using interferon gamma release assays to detect Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection-United States, 2010. MMWR Recomm Rep 2010, 59:1-25.
16. Use of interferon-gamma release assays in support of TB diagnosis 2011, ECDC, European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control, Stockholm.
17. Strategic and technical advisory group for tuberculosis (STAG-TB). Report of the tenth meeting 2010, WHO, World Health Organization, Geneva.
18. Comstock GW, Livesay VT, Woolpert SF The prognosis of a positive tuberculin reaction in childhood and adolescence. Am J Epidemiol 1974, 99:131-138.
19. Mitchison DA, Wallace JG, Bhatia AL, et al. A comparison of the virulence in guinea-pigs of South Indian and British tubercle bacilli. Tubercle 1960, 41:1-22.
20. Middlebrook G, Cohn ML Some observations on the pathogenicity of isoniazid-resistant variants of tubercle bacilli. Science 1953, 118:297-299.
21. Barroso E, Mota R, Pinheiro V, Campelo C, Rodrigues J Occurrence of active tuberculosis in households inhabited by patients with susceptible and mulidrug-resistant tuberculosis. J Bras Pneumol 2004, 30:401-408.
22. Teixeira L, Perkins MD, Johnson JL, et al. Infection and disease among household contacts of patients with multidrug-resistant tuberculosis. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 2001, 5:321-328.
23. Risk of tuberculosis among contacts of isoniazid-resistant and isoniazid-susceptible cases. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 2011, 15:782-788. Tuberculosis Research Centre, Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR), Chennai, India.
24. Johnson R, Warren RM, van der Spuy GD, et al. Drug-resistant tuberculosis epidemic in the Western Cape driven by a virulent Beijing genotype strain. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 2010, 14:119-121.
25. Hanekom M, van der Spuy GD, Streicher E, et al. A recently evolved sublineage of the Mycobacterium tuberculosis Beijing strain family is associated with an increased ability to spread and cause disease. J Clin Microbiol 2007, 45:1483-1490.
26. Thwaites G, Caws M, Chau TT, et al. Relationship between Mycobacterium tuberculosis genotype and the clinical phenotype of pulmonary and meningeal tuberculosis. J Clin Microbiol 2008, 46:1363-1368.
27. Gessner BD, Weiss NS, Nolan CM Risk factors for pediatric tuberculosis infection and disease after household exposure to adult index cases in Alaska. J Pediatr 1998, 132:509-513.
28. Singh M, Mynak ML, Kumar L, Mathew JL, Jindal SK Prevalence and risk factors for transmission of infection among children in household contact with adults having pulmonary tuberculosis. Arch Dis Child 2005, 90:624-628.
29. Shaw JB, Wynn-Williams N Infectivity of pulmonary tuberculosis in relation to sputum status. Am Rev Tuberc 1954, 69:724-732.
30. Kenyon TA, Creek T, Laserson K, et al. Risk factors for transmission of Mycobacterium tuberculosis from HIV-infected tuberculosis patients, Botswana. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 2002, 6:843-850.
31. Siddiqi K, Lambert ML, Walley J Clinical diagnosis of smear-negative pulmonary tuberculosis in low-income countries: the current evidence. Lancet Infect Dis 2003, 3:288-296.
32. Cruciani M, Malena M, Bosco O, Gatti G, Serpelloni G The impact of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 on infectiousness of tuberculosis: a meta-analysis. Clin Infect Dis 2001, 33:1922-1930.
33. Escombe AR, Moore DA, Gilman RH, et al. The infectiousness of tuberculosis patients coinfected with HIV. PLoS Med 2008, 5:e188.
34. Lienhardt C, Fielding K, Sillah J, et al. Risk factors for tuberculosis infection in sub-Saharan Africa: a contact study in The Gambia. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2003, 168:448-455.
35. Lienhardt C, Sillah J, Fielding K, et al. Risk factors for tuberculosis infection in children in contact with infectious tuberculosis cases in the Gambia, West Africa. Pediatrics 2003, 111:e608-e614.
36. Lienhardt C From exposure to disease: the role of environmental factors in susceptibility to and development of tuberculosis. Epidemiol Rev 2001, 23:288-301.
37. Rouillon A, Perdrizet S, Parrot R Transmission of tubercle bacilli: the effects of chemotherapy. Tubercle 1976, 57:275-299.
38. Andersen S, Geser A The distribution of tuberculous infection among households in African communities. Bull World Health Organ 1960, 22:39-60.
39. Narain R, Nair SS, Rao GR, Chandrasekhar P Distribution of tuberculous infection and disease among households in a rural community. Bull World Health Organ 1966, 34:639-654.
40. den Boon S, Verver S, Marais BJ, et al. Association between passive smoking and infection with Mycobacterium tuberculosis in children. Pediatrics 2007, 119:734-739.
41. Wood R, Johnstone-Robertson S, Uys P, et al. Tuberculosis transmission to young children in a South African community: modeling household and community infection risks. Clin Infect Dis 2010, 51:401-408.
42. Loudon RG, Spohn SK Cough frequency and infectivity in patients with pulmonary tuberculosis. Am Rev Respir Dis 1969, 99:109-111.
43. Schaaf HS, Shean K, Donald PR Culture confirmed multidrug resistant tuberculosis: diagnostic delay, clinical features, and outcome. Arch Dis Child 2003, 88:1106-1111.
44. Nathanson E, Lambregts-van Weezenbeek C, Rich ML, et al. Multidrug-resistant tuberculosis management in resource-limited settings. Emerg Infect Dis 2006, 12:1389-1397.
45. Marais BJ, Gie RP, Schaaf HS, et al. The clinical epidemiology of childhood pulmonary tuberculosis: a critical review of literature from the pre-chemotherapy era. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 2004, 8:278-285.
46. Marais BJ, Gie RP, Schaaf HS, et al. The natural history of childhood intra-thoracic tuberculosis: a critical review of literature from the pre-chemotherapy era. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 2004, 8:392-402.
47. Selwyn PA, Hartel D, Lewis VA, et al. A prospective study of the risk of tuberculosis among intravenous drug users with human immunodeficiency virus infection. N Engl J Med 1989, 320:545-550.
48. Hesseling AC, Cotton MF, Jennings T, et al. High incidence of tuberculosis among HIV-infected infants: evidence from a South African population-based study highlights the need for improved tuberculosis control strategies. Clin Infect Dis 2009, 48:108-114.
49. Kritski AL, Marques MJ, Rabahi MF, et al. Transmission of tuberculosis to close contacts of patients with multidrug-resistant tuberculosis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1996, 153:331-335.
50. Schaaf HS, Van Rie A, Gie RP, et al. Transmission of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2000, 19:695-699.
51. Wootton SH, Gonzalez BE, Pawlak R, et al. Epidemiology of pediatric tuberculosis using traditional and molecular techniques: Houston, Texas. Pediatrics 2005, 116:1141-1147.
52. Schaaf HS, Michaelis IA, Richardson M, et al. Adult-to-child transmission of tuberculosis: household or community contact?. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 2003, 7:426-431.
53. Bayona J, Chavez-Pachas AM, Palacios E, et al. Contact investigations as a means of detection and timely treatment of persons with infectious multidrug-resistant tuberculosis. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 2003, 7:S501-S509.
54. Steiner P, Rao M, Mitchell M, Steiner M Primary drug-resistant tuberculosis in children. Correlation of drug-susceptibility patterns of matched patient and source case strains of Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Am J Dis Child 1985, 139:780-782.
55. Madico G, Gilman RH, Checkley W, et al. Community infection ratio as an indicator for tuberculosis control. Lancet 1995, 345:416-419.
56. van Rie A, Victor TC, Richardson M, et al. Reinfection and mixed infection cause changing Mycobacterium tuberculosis drug-resistance patterns. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2005, 172:636-642.
57. Warren RM, Victor TC, Streicher EM, et al. Patients with active tuberculosis often have different strains in the same sputum specimen. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2004, 169:610-614.
58. Leung CC, Rieder HL, Lange C, Yew WW Treatment of latent infection with Mycobaterium tuberculosis: update 2010. Eur Respir J 2011, 37:690-711.
59. Marais BJ, Gie RP, Schaaf HS, et al. Childhood pulmonary tuberculosis: old wisdom and new challenges. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2006, 173:1078-1090.
60. Guidance for national tuberculosis programmes on the management of tuberculosis in children (WHO/HTM/TB/2006371, WHO/FCH/CAH/20067) 2006, WHO, World Health Organization, Geneva.
61. Rapid advice: treatment of tuberculosis in children 2010, WHO, World Health Organization, Geneva.
62. Chapter 4: childhood contact screening and management. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 2007, 11:12-15. World Health Organization Stop TB Partnership Childhood TB Subgroup.
63. Halsey NA, Coberly JS, Desormeaux J, et al. Randomised trial of isoniazid versus rifampicin and pyrazinamide for prevention of tuberculosis in HIV-1 infection. Lancet 1998, 351:786-792.
64. Mwinga A, Hosp M, Godfrey-Faussett P, et al. Twice weekly tuberculosis preventive therapy in HIV infection in Zambia. AIDS 1998, 12:2447-2457.
65. Ormerod LP Reduced incidence of tuberculosis by prophylactic chemotherapy in subjects showing strong reactions to tuberculin testing. Arch Dis Child 1987, 62:1005-1008.
66. A double-blind placebo-controlled clinical trial of three antituberculosis chemoprophylaxis regimens in patients with silicosis in Hong Kong. Am Rev Respir Dis 1992, 145:36-41. Hong Kong Chest Service, Tuberculosis Research Centre MadrasTuberculosis Research Centre Madras, British Medical Research CouncilBritish Medical Research Council.
67. Smieja MJ, Marchetti CA, Cook DJ, Smaill FM Isoniazid for preventing tuberculosis in non-HIV infected persons. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2000, 2. CD001363.
68. Ferebee SH Controlled chemoprophylaxis trials in tuberculosis. A general review. Bibl Tuberc 1970, 26:28-106.
69. Targeted tuberculin testing and treatment of latent tuberculosis infection. This official statement of the American Thoracic Society was adopted by the ATS Board of Directors, July 1999. This is a Joint Statement of the American Thoracic Society (ATS) and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). This statement was endorsed by the Council of the Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA), September 1999, and the sections of this statement. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2000, 161:S221-S247. CDC/ATA/IDSA.
70. Efficacy of various durations of isoniazid preventive therapy for tuberculosis: five years of follow-up in the IUAT trial. International Union Against Tuberculosis Committee on Prophylaxis. Bull World Health Organ 1982, 60:555-564. International Union Against Tuberculosis Committee on Prophylaxis.
71. Gray DM, Zar H, Cotton M Impact of tuberculosis preventive therapy on tuberculosis and mortality in HIV-infected children. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2009, 1. CD006418.
72. Zar HJ, Cotton MF, Strauss S, et al. Effect of isoniazid prophylaxis on mortality and incidence of tuberculosis in children with HIV: randomised controlled trial. BMJ 2007, 334:136.
73. Madhi SA, Nachman S, Violari A, et al. Primary isoniazid prophylaxis against tuberculosis in HIV-exposed children. N Engl J Med 2011, 365:21-31.
74. Guidelines for intensified tuberculosis case-finding and isoniazid preventive therapy for people living with HIV in resource constrained settings 2010, WHO, World Health Organization, Geneva.
75. Fraser A, Paul M, Attamna A, Leibovici L Drugs for preventing tuberculosis in people at risk of multiple-drug-resistant pulmonary tuberculosis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2006, 2. CD005435.
76. Bamrah S, Brostrom R, Setik L, et al. An ounce of prevention: treating MDR-TB contacts in a resource-limited setting. International Union of Tuberculosis and Lung Disease Conference; Berlin, Germany; Nov 11-15, 2010. Abstr FA-1-656-14.
77. CG117. Tuberculosis. Clinical diagnosis and management of tuberculosis, and measures for its prevention and control 2011, NICE, National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence, London.
78. Management of drug-resistant tuberculosis: policy guidelines 2011 2011, Department of Health, Republic of South AfricaRepublic of South Africa, Ministry of Health, Pretoria.
79. Passannante MR, Gallagher CT, Reichman LB Preventive therapy for contacts of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis. A Delphi survey. Chest 1994, 106:431-434.
80. Management of persons exposed to multidrug-resistant tuberculosis. MMWR Recomm Rep 1992, 41:61-71. Centers for Disease Control, Atlanta, Georgia, USA.
81. Tuberculosis. Red book: report of the committee on infectious diseases 2009, 680-701. American Academy of Pediatrics, American Academy of Pediatrics, Elk Grove Village, IL. 28th edn. L.K. Pickering (Ed.).
82. PIH guide to the medical management of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis 2003, Partners in Health, Partners in Health, Boston, MA.
83. Drug-resistant tuberculosis: a survival guide for clinicians, 2nd edn 2008, Francis J Curry National Tuberculosis Center, Francis J Curry National Tuberculosis Center, San Francisco, CA.
84. Attamna A, Chemtob D, Attamna S, et al. Risk of tuberculosis in close contacts of patients with multidrug resistant tuberculosis: a nationwide cohort. Thorax 2009, 64:271.
85. Feja K, McNelley E, Tran CS, Burzynski J, Saiman L Management of pediatric multidrug-resistant tuberculosis and latent tuberculosis infections in New York City from 1995 to 2003. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2008, 27:907-912.
86. Sasaki Y, Yamagishi F, Yagi T The current situation of contacts examination and chemoprophylaxis for persons exposed to multi-drug resistant tuberculosis in ordinance-designated cities in Japan. Kekkaku 2005, 80:637-642.
87. Papastavros T, Dolovich LR, Holbrook A, Whitehead L, Loeb M Adverse events associated with pyrazinamide and levofloxacin in the treatment of latent multidrug-resistant tuberculosis. CMAJ 2002, 167:131-136.
88. Cain KP, Nelson LJ, Cegielski JP Global policies and practices for managing persons exposed to multidrug-resistant tuberculosis. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 2010, 14:269-274.
89. Tochon M, Bosdure E, Salles M, et al. Management of young children in contact with an adult with drug-resistant tuberculosis, France, 2004-2008. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 2011, 15:326-330.
90. Pineiro Perez R, Mellado Pena MJ, Mendez Echevarria A, et al. Exposure to multiresisant tuberculosis: study and follow-up of nine children. An Pediatr (Barc) 2008, 68:490-495. (in Spanish).
91. Chopra I, Brennan P Molecular action of anti-mycobacterial agents. Tuber Lung Dis 1997, 78:89-98.
92. Loebstein R, Koren G Clinical pharmacology and therapeutic drug monitoring in neonates and children. Pediatr Rev 1998, 19:423-428.
93. McIlleron H, Willemse M, Werely CJ, et al. Isoniazid plasma concentrations in a cohort of South African children with tuberculosis: implications for international pediatric dosing guidelines. Clin Infect Dis 2009, 48:1547-1553.
94. Schaaf HS, Willemse M, Cilliers K, et al. Rifampin pharmacokinetics in children, with and without human immunodeficiency virus infection, hospitalized for the management of severe forms of tuberculosis. BMC Med 2009, 7:19.
95. Donald PR, Parkin DP, Seifart HI, et al. The influence of dose and N-acetyltransferase-2 (NAT2) genotype and phenotype on the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of isoniazid. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 2007, 63:633-639.
96. Graham SM, Bell DJ, Nyirongo S, et al. Low levels of pyrazinamide and ethambutol in children with tuberculosis and impact of age, nutritional status, and human immunodeficiency virus infection. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2006, 50:407-413.
97. Holdiness MR Clinical pharmacokinetics of the antituberculosis drugs. Clin Pharmacokinet 1984, 9:511-544.
98. Rey E, Gendrel D, Treluyer JM, et al. Isoniazid pharmacokinetics in children according to acetylator phenotype. Fundam Clin Pharmacol 2001, 15:355-359.
99. Sirgel FA, Donald PR, Odhiambo J, et al. A multicentre study of the early bactericidal activity of anti-tuberculosis drugs. J Antimicrob Chemother 2000, 45:859-870.
100. Balcells ME, Thomas SL, Godfrey-Faussett P, Grant AD Isoniazid preventive therapy and risk for resistant tuberculosis. Emerg Infect Dis 2006, 12:744-751.
101. Banerjee A, Dubnau E, Quemard A, et al. inhA, a gene encoding a target for isoniazid and ethionamide in Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Science 1994, 263:227-230.
102. Mitchison DA Role of individual drugs in the chemotherapy of tuberculosis. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 2000, 4:796-806.
103. Ijaz K, Jereb JA, Lambert LA, et al. Severe or fatal liver injury in 50 patients in the United States taking rifampin and pyrazinamide for latent tuberculosis infection. Clin Infect Dis 2006, 42:346-355.
104. Younossian AB, Rochat T, Ketterer JP, Wacker J, Janssens JP High hepatotoxicity of pyrazinamide and ethambutol for treatment of latent tuberculosis. Eur Respir J 2005, 26:462-464.
105. Update: adverse event data and revised American Thoracic Society/CDC recommendations against the use of rifampin and pyrazinamide for treatment of latent tuberculosis infection-United States, 2003. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2003, 52:735-739. American Thoracic Society/Centers for Disease Control.
106. le Bourgeois M, de Blic J, Paupe J, Scheinmann P Good tolerance of pyrazinamide in children with pulmonary tuberculosis. Arch Dis Child 1989, 64:177-178.
107. Sanchez-Albisua I, Vidal ML, Joya-Verde G, et al. Tolerance of pyrazinamide in short course chemotherapy for pulmonary tuberculosis in children. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1997, 16:760-763.
108. Mphahlele M, Syre H, Valvatne H, et al. Pyrazinamide resistance among South African multidrug-resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis isolates. J Clin Microbiol 2008, 46:3459-3464.
109. Hoek KG, Schaaf HS, Gey van Pittius NC, van Helden PD, Warren RM Resistance to pyrazinamide and ethambutol compromises MDR/XDR-TB treatment. S Afr Med J 2009, 99:785-787.
110. Yu MC, Suo J, Lin TP, Luh KT In vitro activity of ofloxacin against Mycobacterium tuberculosis. J Formos Med Assoc 1997, 96:13-16.
111. Ingham B, Brentnall D, Dale E, McFadzean J Arthropathy induced by antibacerial fused N-Alkyl-4-pyridone-3-carboxylic acids. Toxicol Lett 1977, 1:21-26.
112. Burkhardt JE, Walterspiel JN, Schaad UB Quinolone arthropathy in animals versus children. Clin Infect Dis 1997, 25:1196-1204.
113. Ginsburg AS, Grosset JH, Bishai WR Fluoroquinolones, tuberculosis, and resistance. Lancet Infect Dis 2003, 3:432-442.
114. Cremades R, Rodriguez JC, Galiana A, et al. Comparison of the bactericidal activity of various fluoroquinolones against Mycobacterium tuberculosis in an in vitro experimental model. J Antimcrob Chemother 2011, 66:2281-2283.
115. Ethambutol efficacy and toxicity: literature review and recommendations for daily and intermittent dosage in children (WHO/HTM/TB/2006365; WHO/FCH/CAH/20063) 2006, WHO, World Health Organization, Geneva.
116. Schaaf HS, Victor TC, Engelke E, et al. Minimal inhibitory concentration of isoniazid in isoniazid-resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis isolates from children. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2007, 26:203-205.
117. Victor TC, Warren R, Butt JL, et al. Genome and MIC stability in Mycobacterium tuberculosis and indications for continuation of use of isoniazid in multidrug-resistant tuberculosis. J Med Microbiol 1997, 46:847-857.
118. Muller B, Streicher EM, Hoek KG, et al. inhA promoter mutations: a gateway to extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis in South Africa?. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 2011, 15:344-351.
119. Sneag DB, Schaaf HS, Cotton MF, Zar HJ Failure of chemoprophylaxis with standard antituberculosis agents in child contacts of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis cases. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2007, 26:1142-1146.
120. Diacon AH, Pym A, Grobusch M, et al. The diarylquinoline TMC207 for multidrug-resistant tuberculosis. N Engl J Med 2009, 360:2397-2405.
121. Stevens JP, Daniel TM Chemoprophylaxis of multidrug-resistant tuberculous infection in HIV-uninfected individuals using ciprofloxacin and pyrazinamide. A decision analysis. Chest 1995, 108:712-717.
122. Research excellence to stop TB resistance: report on the RESIST-TB protocol workshop, 5-6 October 2009 RESIST-TB, (accessed Jan 17, 2012). http://www.resisttb.org/uploads/RESIST-TB_Protocol_Workshop_summary.pdf.
123. Parsyan AE, Saukkonen J, Barry MA, Sharnprapai S, Horsburgh CR Predictors of failure to complete treatment for latent tuberculosis infection. J Infect 2007, 54:262-266.
124. Bock NN, Metzger BS, Tapia JR, Blumberg HM A tuberculin screening and isoniazid preventive therapy program in an inner-city population. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1999, 159:295-300.
125. van Zyl S, Marais BJ, Hesseling AC, et al. Adherence to anti-tuberculosis chemoprophylaxis and treatment in children. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 2006, 10:13-18.
126. Marais BJ, van Zyl S, Schaaf HS, et al. Adherence to isoniazid preventive chemotherapy: a prospective community based study. Arch Dis Child 2006, 91:762-765.
127. Barker RD, Millard FJ, Nthangeni ME Unpaid community volunteers-effective providers of directly observed therapy (DOT) in rural South Africa. S Afr Med J 2002, 92:291-294.
128. Taken your medicine? Health care: mobile phones provide a cheap and simple way to ensure that patients have popped their pills. Technol Quarterly 2009, 2:7-8. The Economist.
129. Coyne KM, Pozniak AL, Lamorde M, Boffito M Pharmacology of second-line antituberculosis drugs and potential for interactions with antiretroviral agents. AIDS 2009, 23:437-446.
130. Peloquin CA, Berning SE, Huitt GA, Iseman MD AIDS and TB drug absorption. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 1999, 3:1143-1144.
131. Antiretroviral therapy of HIV infection in infants and children: towards universal access. Recommendations for a public health approach 2006, WHO, World Health Organization, Geneva.
132. Welch SB, Gibb D When should children with HIV infection be started on antiretroviral therapy?. PLoS Med 2008, 5:e73.
133. Violari A, Cotton MF, Gibb DM, et al. Early antiretroviral therapy and mortality among HIV-infected infants. N Engl J Med 2008, 359:2233-2244.
134. Guidelines on co-trimoxazole prophylaxis for HIV-related infections among children, adolescents and adults. Recommendations for a public health approach 2006, WHO, World Health Organization, Geneva.
135. Pediatric TB IRIS case definition. Case definition: consensus criteria for diagnosis of paediatric TB IRIS International Network of the Study of HIV-associated IRIS (INSHI), (accessed Jan 17, 2012). http://www.inshi.umn.edu/definitions/Peds_TB_IRIS/home.html.
136. Boulware DR, Callens S, Pahwa S Pediatric HIV immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome. Curr Opin HIV AIDS 2008, 3:461-467.
137. Zampoli M, Kilborn T, Eley B Tuberculosis during early antiretroviral-induced immune reconstitution in HIV-infected children. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 2007, 11:417-423.
138. Muller M, Wandel S, Colebunders R, et al. Immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome in patients starting antiretroviral therapy for HIV infection: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Infect Dis 2010, 10:251-261.
139. Becerra MC, Appleton SC, Franke MF, et al. Tuberculosis burden in households of patients with multidrug-resistant and extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis: a retrospective cohort study. Lancet 2011, 377:147-152.
140. Resch SC, Salomon JA, Murray M, Weinstein MC Cost-effectiveness of treating multidrug-resistant tuberculosis. PLoS Med 2006, 3:e241.
141. Tupasi TE, Gupta R, Quelapio MI, et al. Feasibility and cost-effectiveness of treating multidrug-resistant tuberculosis: a cohort study in the Philippines. PLoS Med 2006, 3:e352.
142. Orenstein EW, Basu S, Shah NS, et al. Treatment outcomes among patients with multidrug-resistant tuberculosis: systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Infect Dis 2009, 9:153-161.
143. Graham SM, Gie RP, Schaaf HS, et al. Childhood tuberculosis: clinical research needs. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 2004, 8:648-657.
144. Cobelens FG, Heldal E, Kimerling ME, et al. Scaling up programmatic management of drug-resistant tuberculosis: a prioritized research agenda. PLoS Med 2008, 5:e150.
145. Consolidated action plan to prevent and combat multidrug- and extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis in the WHO European Region 2011-2015 (EUR/RC61/15) 2011, WHO Regional Office for Europe, World Health Organization, Copenhagen.