State-of-the-art classification and multimodality treatment of malignant thymoma

Cancer Treatment Reviews

Volumn 38, Issue 5, 2012, Pages 540-548

  Koppitz, Hannah ^a   Rockstroh, Jürgen K ^a   Schüller, Heinrich ^a   Standop, Jens ^a   Skowasch, Dirk ^a   Müller Hermelink, Hans Konrad ^b   Schmidt Wolf, Ingo G H ^c  

^a UNIVERSITY OF BONN   (Germany)

^b UNIVERSITY OF KIEL   (Germany)

^c University of Cologne   (Germany)

Author keywords

Classification; Review; Therapy; Thymoma

Indexed keywords

ANTINEOPLASTIC AGENT; BELINOSTAT; BEVACIZUMAB; CAPECITABINE; CARBOPLATIN; CETUXIMAB; CISPLATIN; CIXUTUMUMAB; CYCLOPHOSPHAMIDE; DASATINIB; DOCETAXEL; DOXORUBICIN; ERLOTINIB; ETOPOSIDE; FIGITUMUMAB; FUMAGILLOL CHLOROACETYLCARBAMATE; GEFITINIB; GEMCITABINE; IFOSFAMIDE; IMATINIB; IRINOTECAN; OCTREOTIDE; PACLITAXEL; PEMETREXED; PREDNISONE; RITUXIMAB; SARACATINIB; SORAFENIB; VINCRISTINE;

CANCER ADJUVANT THERAPY; CANCER COMBINATION CHEMOTHERAPY; CANCER PROGNOSIS; CANCER STAGING; DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS; DRUG EFFICACY; ECHOCARDIOGRAPHY; EXTERNAL BEAM RADIOTHERAPY; GERM CELL TUMOR; HISTOPATHOLOGY; HODGKIN DISEASE; IMMUNOHISTOCHEMISTRY; INCIDENCE; INTENSITY MODULATED RADIATION THERAPY; LUNG CANCER; MEDIASTINOSCOPY; MULTIMODALITY CANCER THERAPY; MYASTHENIA GRAVIS; NONHODGKIN LYMPHOMA; OVERALL SURVIVAL; PERICARDITIS; PERIPHERAL BLOOD STEM CELL TRANSPLANTATION; PLEURA METASTASIS; PLEURECTOMY; RADIATION DOSE; RADIATION HAZARD; RADIATION PNEUMONIA; RECURRENCE RISK; REVIEW; STERNOTOMY; SURGICAL RISK; SURVIVAL RATE; THORAX RADIOGRAPHY; THYMECTOMY; THYMOMA; THYMUS CANCER; TREATMENT RESPONSE; TUMOR CLASSIFICATION; TUMOR LOCALIZATION; TUMOR VOLUME;

CHEMOTHERAPY, ADJUVANT; COMBINED MODALITY THERAPY; DIAGNOSIS, DIFFERENTIAL; HUMANS; NEOADJUVANT THERAPY; THYMOMA; THYMUS NEOPLASMS;

EID: 84861185440     PISSN: 03057372     EISSN: 15321967     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.ctrv.2011.11.010     Document Type: Review

References (133)

1. Schmidt-Wolf I.G.H., Rockstroh J.K., Schuller H., et al. Malignant thymoma: current status of classification and multimodality treatment. Ann Hematol 2003, 82:69-76.
2. Rosenberg S.A. Thymic neoplasms 1992, Lippincott, Philadelphia.
3. Strobel P., Bauer A., Puppe B., et al. Tumor recurrence and survival in patients treated for thymomas and thymic squamous cell carcinomas: a retrospective analysis. J Clin Oncol 2004, 22:1501-1509.
4. Fornasiero A., Daniele O., Ghiotto C., et al. Chemotherapy of invasive thymoma. J Clin Oncol 1990, 8:1419-1423.
5. Engels E.A. Epidemiology of thymoma and associated malignancies. J Thorac Oncol 2010, 5:260-265.
6. Schwartz A.M., Kostun L.E., Batich K., Henson D.E. The pathology and epidemiology of thymoma: an analysis of 2189 cases from the SEER database. J Thorac Oncol 2010, 5:369.
7. Muller-Hermelink H.K., Marx A., Geuder K., Kirchner T. The pathological basis of thymoma-associated myasthenia gravis. Ann NY Acad Sci 1993, 681:56-65.
8. Detterbeck F.C., Parsons A.M. Thymic tumors. Ann Thorac Surg 2004, 77:1860-1869.
9. Romi F. Thymoma in myasthenia gravis: from diagnosis to treatment. Autoimmune diseases, article in press, published online 08/11.
10. Ruffini E., Van Raemdonck D., Detterbeck F., et al. Management of thymic tumors: a survey of current practice among members of the European Society of Thoracic Surgeons. J Thorac Oncol 2011, 6:614-623.
11. Terzi A, Bertolaccini L, Rizzardi G et al. Usefulness of 18-F FDG PET/CT in the pre-treatment evaluation of thymic epithelial neoplasms. Lung Cancer, article in press, published online 03/11.
12. Marom E.M., Milito M.A., Moran C.A., et al. Computed tomography findings predicting invasiveness of thymoma. J Thorac Oncol 2010, 5:370.
13. Strollo D.C., Rosado-de-Christenson M.L. Tumors of the thymus. J Thorac Imaging 1999, 14:152-171.
14. Bernatz P.E., Khonsari S., Harrison E.G., Taylor W.F. Thymoma: factors influencing prognosis. Surg Clin North Am 1973, 53:885-892.
15. Lattes R. Thymoma and other tumors of the thymus. An analysis of 107 cases. Cancer 1962, 15:1224-1260.
16. Levine G.D., Rosai J. Thymic hyperplasia and neoplasia: a review of current concepts. Hum Pathol 1978, 9:495-515.
17. Suster S., Moran C.A. Primary thymic epithelial neoplasms: spectrum of differentiation and histological features. Semin Diagn Pathol 1999, 16:2-17.
18. Muller-Hermelink H.K., Marx A. Towards a histogenetic classification of thymic epithelial tumours?. Histopathology 2000, 36:466-469.
19. Souadjian J.V., Enriquez P., Silverstein M.N., Pepin J.M. The spectrum of diseases associated with thymoma. Coincidence or syndrome?. Arch Intern Med 1974, 134:374-379.
20. Ritter J.H., Wick M.R. Primary carcinomas of the thymus gland. Semin Diagn Pathol 1999, 16:18-31.
21. Muller-Hermelink H.K., Marino M., Palestro G. Pathology of thymic epithelial tumors. Curr Top Pathol 1986, 75:207-268.
22. Muller-Hermelink H.K., Marx A. Thymoma. Curr Opin Oncol 2000, 12:426-433.
23. Suster S., Moran C.A. Thymoma, atypical thymoma and thymic carcinoma. A novel conceptual approach to the classification of thymic epithelial neoplasms. Am J Clin Pathol 1999, 111:826-833.
24. Rosai J. Histological typing of tumors of the thymus 1999, Springer Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg.
25. Travis M.D., Brambilla E., Muller-Hermelink HK World Health Organization classification of tumors. Pathology and genetics of tumours of the lung thymus and heart 2004, IARC Press, Lyon, France.
26. Okumura M., Ohta M., Tateyama H., et al. The World Health Organization histological classification system reflects the oncologic behavior of thymoma: a clinical study of 273 patients. Cancer 2002, 94:624-632.
27. Quintanilla-Martinez L., Wizkins E.W., Choi N., et al. Thymoma. Histological subclassification is an independent prognostic factor. Cancer 1994, 74:606-617.
28. Chen G., Marx A., Wen-Hu C., et al. New WHO histologic classification predicts prognosis of thymic epithelial tumors: a clinicopathologic study of 200 thymoma cases from China. Cancer 2002, 95:420-429.
29. Zettl A., Strobel P., Wagner K., et al. Recurrent genetic aberrations in thymoma and thymic carcinoma. Am J Pathol 2000, 157:257-266.
30. Zhou R., Zettl A., Strobel P., et al. Thymic epithelial tumors can develop along two different pathogenetic pathways. AM J Pathol 2001, 159:1853-1860.
31. Inoue M., Starosik P., Zettl A., et al. Correlating genetic aberrations with World Health Organization-defined histology and stage across the spectrum of thymomas. Cancer Res 2003, 63:3708-3715.
32. Marino M., Muller-Hermelink H.K. Thymoma and thymic carcinoma. Relation of thymoma epithelial cells to the cortical and medullary differentiation of thymus. Virchows Arch 1985, 2007:119-149.
33. Kirchner T., Schalke B., Buchwald J. Well-differentiated thymic carcinoma. An organotypical low-grade carcinoma with relationship to cortical thymoma. Am J Surg Pathol 1992, 16:1153-1169.
34. Koga K., Matsuno Y., Noguchi M., et al. A review of 79 thymomas: modification of staging system and reappraisal of conventional division into invasive and non-invasive thymoma. Pathol Int 1994, 44:359-367.
35. Detterbeck F.C., Nicholson A.G., Kondo K., Van Schil P., Moran C. The Masaoka-Koga stage classification for thymic malignancies clarification and definition of terms. J Thorax Oncol 2011, 6:1710-1716.
36. Yamakawa Y., Masaoka A., Hashimoto T., et al. A tentative tumor-node-metastasis classification of thymoma. Cancer 1991, 68:1984-1987.
37. Kondo K. Tumor-node metastasis staging system for thymic epithelial tumors. J Thorac Oncol 2010, 5:352-356.
38. Masaoka A. Staging system of thymoma. J Thorac Oncol 2010, 5:304-312.
39. Kondo K., Monden Y. Therapy for thymic epithelial tumors: a clinical study of 1320 patients from Japan. Ann Thorac Surg 2003, 76:878-885.
40. Inoue M., Marx A., Zettl A., et al. Chromosome 6 suffers frequent and multiple aberrations in thymoma. J Pathol 2002, 161:1507-1514.
41. Strobel P., Hohen P., Marx A., et al. Thymoma and thymic carcinoma. Molecular pathology and targeted therapy. J Thorac Oncol 2002, 5:286-290.
42. Girard N., Shen R., Guo T., Zakowski N. Comprehensive genomic analysis reveals clinically relevant molecular distinctions between thymic carcinomas and thymomas clin cancer. Clin Cancer Res 2009, 15:6790-6799.
43. Whooley B.P., Urschel J.D., Antkowiak J.D., Takita H. A 25-year thymoma treatment review. J Exp Clin Cancer Res 2000, 19:3-5.
44. Toker A., Sonett J., Zielinski M., Rea F., et al. Standard terms, definitions, and policies for minimally invasive resection of thymoma. J Thorac Oncol 2011, 6:1739-1742.
45. Port J.L., Ginsberg R.J. Surgery for thymoma. Chest Surg Clin North Am 2001, 11:421-437.
46. Davenport E., Malthaner R.A. The role of surgery in the management of thymoma: a systematic review. Ann Thorac Surg 2008, 86:673-684.
47. Ruckert J.C., Swierzy M., Rudolph B. Robotic thymectomy for thymoma: when and why?. J Thorac Oncol 2010, 5:367.
48. Akaodi E., Ohara K., Mitsiu K., et al. Preoperative radiotherapy and surgery for advanced thymoma with invasion to the great vessels. J Surg Oncol 1996, 63:17-22.
49. Curran W.J., Kornstein M.J., Brooks J.J., Turrisi A.T. Invasive thymoma: the role of mediastinal irradiation following complete or incomplete surgical resection. J Clin Oncol 1988, 6:1722-1727.
50. Maggi G., Casadio C., Cavallo A., et al. Thymoma: results of 241 operated cases. Ann Thorac Surg 1991, 51:152-156.
51. Patel S, Macdonald OK, Nagda S et al. Evaluation of the role of radiation therapy in the management of malignant thymoma. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys, article in press, published online 05/11.
52. Forquer J.A., Rong N., Fakiris A.J., et al. Postoperative radiotherapy after surgical resection of thymoma. Differing roles in localized and regional disease. Int J Radiat Incol Biol Phys 2010, 76:440-445.
53. Girard N., Mornex F., Van Houtte P., et al. Thymoma. A focus on current therapeutic management. J Thorac Oncol 2009, 4:119-126.
54. Kim E.S., Putman J.B., Komaki R., et al. Phase II study of a multidisciplinary approach with induction chemotherapy, followed by surgical resection, radiation therapy and consolidation chemotherapy for unresectable malignant thymomas: final report. Lung Cancer 2004, 44:369-379.
55. Thymoma, recurrent thymoma and thymic carcinoma. http://cancernet.nci.nih.gov/.
56. Bonomi P.D., Finkelstein D., Aisner S., Ettinger D. EST 2582 phase II trial of cisplatin in metastatic or recurrent thymoma. Am J Clin Oncol 1993, 16:342-345.
57. Park H.S., Shin D.M., Lee J.S., et al. Thymoma. A retrospective study of 87 cases. Cancer 1994, 73:2491-2498.
58. Harper H.M., Rankin E., et al. Ifosfamide monotherapy demonstrates high activity in malignant thymoma. Proc ASCO 1991, 10:300.
59. Highley M.S., Underhill C.R., Parnis F.X., et al. Treatment of invasive thymoma with single-agent ifosfamide. J Clin Oncol. 1999, 17:2737-2744.
60. Lucchi M., Mussi A., Ambrogi M., et al. Thymic carcinoma: a report of 13 cases. Eur J Surg Oncol 2001, 636-640.
61. Rea F., Sartori F., Loy M., et al. Chemotherapy and operation for noninvasive thymoma. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1993, 106:543-549.
62. Macchiarini P., Chella A., Dussi F., et al. Neoadjuvant chemotherapy, surgery and postoperative radiation therapy for invasive thymoma. Cancer 1991, 68:706-713.
63. Takahashi K., Yoshida J., Nishimura M., Nagai K. Thymic carcinoma. Outcome of treatment including surgical resection. Jpn J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 2000, 48:494-498.
64. Myojin M., Choi N.C., Wright C.D., et al. Stage III thymoma: pattern of failure after surgery and postoperative radiotherapy and its implication for future study. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 2000, 46:927-933.
65. Yagi K., Hirata T., Fukuse T., et al. Surgical treatment for invasive thymoma, especially when the superior vena cava is invaded. Ann thorac Surg 1996, 61:521-524.
66. Lucchi M., Mussi A. Surgical treatment of recurrent thymomas. J Thorac Oncol 2010, 5:348-351.
67. Korst R.J., Kansler A.M., Christos P.J., Mandal S. Adjuvant radiotherapy for thymic epithelial tumors. A systematic review and meta-analysis. Ann Thorac Surg 2009, 87:1641-1647.
68. McKenna BP, Barnes MM, Glatstein E et al., Malignancies of the thymus, Philadelphia, PA, 1989.
69. Thomas C.R., Wright C.D., Loehrer P.J. Thymoma: state of the art. J Clin Oncol 1999, 17:2280-2289.
70. Loehrer P.J. Current approaches to the treatment of thymoma. Ann Med 1999, 31:73-79.
71. Agrawal S., Datta N.R., Mishra S.K., et al. Adjuvant therapy in invasive thymoma: an audit of cases treated over an 8year period. Ind J Cancer 1999, 36:46-56.
72. Ariaratnam L.S., Kalnicki S., Mincer F., Botstein C. The management of malignant thymoma with radiation therapy. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 1979, 5:77-80.
73. Penn C.R., Hope-Stone H.F. The role of radiotherapy in the management of malignant thymoma. Br J Surg 1972, 59:533-539.
74. Huang J., Rizk N.P., Travis W.D., et al. Feasibility of multimodality therapy including extended resections in stage IVa thymoma. J Thor Cardiovasc Surg 2007, 6:1483-1484.
75. Fabre D., Fadel E., Mussot S., et al. Long-term outcome of pleuropneumonectomy for Masaoka stage IVa thymoma. Eur J Cardiothor Surg 2011, 39:133-138.
76. Belcher E., Hardwick E., Lal R., et al. Induction chemotherapy, cytoreductive surgery and intraoperative hyperthermic pleural irrigation in patients with stage IVa thymoma. Interact Cardiovasc Thorac Surg 2011, 12:744-748.
77. Yellin A., Simansky D.A. Fifteen years experience with pleural perfusion thermochemotherapy for thymic epithelial malignancies with pleural spread. J Thorac Oncol 2010, 5:368-389.
78. Hsieh Y., Mick R., Culligan M. Radical pleurectomy and photodynamic therapy as a treatment for stage IVa thymic tumors. J Thorac Oncol 2010, 5:367-368.
79. Loehrer P.J., Chen M., Kim K., et al. Cisplatin, doxorubicin, and cyclophosphamide plus thoracic radiation therapy for limited-stage unresectable thymoma: an intergroup trial. J Clin Oncol 1997, 15:3093-3099.
80. Giaccone G., Ardizzoni A., Kirkpatrick A., et al. Cisplatin and etoposide combination chemotherapy for locally advanced or metastatic thymoma. A phase II study of the European Organization for Research and Treatment of Cancer Lung Cancer Cooperative Group. J Clin Oncol 1996, 14:814-820.
81. Loehrer P.J., Kim K., Aisner S.C., et al. Cisplatin plus doxorubicin plus cyclophosphamide in metastatic or recurrent thymoma: final results of an intergroup trial. The Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group, Southwest Oncology Group, and Southeastern Cancer Study Group. J Clin Oncol 1994, 12:1164-1168.
82. Fornasiero A., Daniele O., Ghiotto C., et al. Chemotherapy for invasive thymoma. A 13-year experience. Cancer 1991, 68:30-33.
83. Berruti A., Borasio P., Roncari A., et al. Neoadjuvant chemotherapy with adriamycin, cisplatin, vincristine and cyclophosphamide (ADOC) in invasive thymomas: results in six patients. Ann Oncol 1993, 4:429-431.
84. Lemma G.L., Lee J.W., Aisner S.C., et al. Phase II study of carboplatin and paclitaxel in advanced thymoma and thymic carcinoma. J Clin Oncol 2011, 29:2060-2065.
85. Igawa S., Murakami H., Takahashi T., et al. Efficacy of chemotherapy with carboplatin and paclitaxel for unresectable thymic carcinoma. Lung Cancer 2009, 67:194-197.
86. Furugen M., Sekine I., Tsuta K., et al. Combination chemotherapy with Carboplatin and Paclitaxel for advanced thymic cancer. Jpn J Clin Oncol 2011, 41:1013-1016.
87. Grassin F., Paleiron N., André M., et al. Combined etoposide, ifosfamide, and cisplatin in the treatment of patients with advanced thymoma and thymic carcinoma. A French experience. J Thorac Oncol 2010, 5:893-897.
88. Loehrer P.J., Jiroutek M., Aisner S., et al. Combined etoposide, ifosfamide, and cisplatin in the treatment of patients with advanced thymoma and thymic carcinoma: an intergroup trial. Cancer 2001, 91:2010-2015.
89. Kunitoh H., Tamura T., Shibata T., et al. A phase II trial of dose-dense chemotherapy, followed by surgical resection and/or thoracic radiotherapy, in locally advanced thymoma: report of a Japan Clinical Oncology Group trial (JCOG 9606). Br J Cancer 2010, 103:6-11.
90. Yano M., Sasaki H., Moriyama S. Number of recurrent lesions is a prognostic factor in recurrent thymoma. Interact Cardiovasc Thorac Surg 2011, 13:21-24.
91. http://www.itmig.org.
92. Urgesi A., Monetti U., Rossi G., et al. Aggressive treatment of intrathoracic recurrences of thymoma. Radiother Oncol 1992, 24:221-225.
93. Palmieri G., Montella L., Martignetti A., et al. Somatostatin analogs and prednisone in advanced refractory thymic tumors. Cancer 2002, 94:1414-1420.
94. Loehrer P.J., Wang W., Johnson D.H., et al. Octreotide alone or with prednisone in patients with advanced thymoma and thymic carcinoma: an Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group Phase II Trial. J Clin Oncol 2004, 22:293-299.
95. Oguri T., Achiwa H., Kato D., et al. Efficacy of docetaxel as a second-line chemotherapy for thymic carcinoma. Chemotherapy 2004, 50:279-282.
96. Huang J., Detterbeck F.C., Wang Z. Standard outcome measures for thymic malignancies. J Thorac Oncol 2010, 5:2017-2023.
97. Detterbeck F.C. International thymic malignancies interest group. A way forward. J Thorac Oncol 2010, 5:365-370.
98. Iwasaki Y., Kubota Y., Yokomura I., et al. Invasive thymoma successfully treated with high-dose chemotherapy followed by peripheral blood stem cell transplantation (PBSCT). Nihon Kokyuiki Gakkai Zasshi 1998, 36:288-293.
99. Numata A., Yasuda K., Fukuda T., et al. Non-myeloablative allogenic haematopoietic stem-cell transplantation for treatment of metastatic invasive thymoma. Lancet Oncol 2005, 6:626-628.
100. Hanna N., Gharpure V.S., Abonour R., et al. High-dose carboplatin with etoposide in patients with recurrent thymoma: the Indiana University experience. Bone Marrow Transplant 2001, 28:435-438.
101. Pan C.C., Chen W.Y., Ghiang H. Spindle cell and mixed spindle/lymphocytic thymomas: an integrated clinicopathologic and immunohistochemical study of 81 cases. Am J Surg Pathol 2001, 25:111-120.
102. Nelson R.P., Pascuzzi R.M., Kessler K., et al. Rituximab for the treatment of thymoma-associated and de novo myasthenia gravis: 3 cases and review. J Clin Neuromuscul Dis. 2009, 10:170-177.
103. Gordon M.S., Battiato L.A., Gonin R., et al. A phase II trial of subcutaneously administered recombinant human interleukin-2 in patients with relapsed/refractory thymoma. J Immunother Emphasis Tumor Immunol 1995, 18:179-184.
104. Berthaud P., Le Chevalier T., Tursz T. Effectiveness of interleukin-2 in invasive lymphoepithelial thymoma. Lancet 1990, 335:1590.
105. Tran H.T., Blumenschein G.R., Lu C., et al. Clinical and pharmacokinetic study of TNP-470, an angiogenesis inhibitor, in combination with paclitaxel and carboplatin in patients with solid tumors. Cancer Chemother Pharmacol 2004, 54:308-314.
106. Bjork-Eriksson T., Bjelkengren G., Glimenius B. The potential of proton beam radiation therapy in malignant lymphoma, thymoma and sarcoma. Acta Oncol 2005, 44:913-917.
107. Nakagawa K., Kudoh S., Matsiu K., et al. A phase I study of pemetrexed (LY231514) supplement with folate and vitamin B12 in Japanese patients with solid tumors. Br J Cancer 2006, 95(6):677-682.
108. Steele N.L., Plumb J.A., Vidal L., et al. A phase 1 pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic study of the histone deacetylase inhibitor belinostat in patients with advanced solid tumors. Clin Cancer Res 2008, 14:804-810.
109. Giaccone G., Rajan A., Berman A., et al. Phase II study of belinostat in patients with recurrent or refractory advanced thymic epithelial tumors. J Clin Oncol 2011, 29:2052-2059.
110. Pan C., Chen P.C., Chiang C. KIT (CD117) is frequently overexpressed in thymic carcinomas but is absent in thymomas. J Pathol 2004, 202:375-381.
111. Strobel P., Hartmann M., Jakob A., et al. Thymic carcinoma with overexpression of mutated KIT and the response to imatinib. N Engl J Med 2004, 350:2625-2626.
112. Chuah C., Lim T.H., Lim A.S., et al. Dasatinib induces a response in malignant thymoma. J Clin Oncol 2006, 24:56-58.
113. Salter J.T., Lewis D., Yiannoutsos C. Imatinib for the treatment of thymic carcinoma. J Clin Oncol 2008, 26:8116.
114. Giaccone G., Rajan A., Ruijter R., et al. Imatinib mesylate in patients with WHO B3 thymomas and thymic carcinomas. J Thorac Oncol 2009, 4:1270-1273.
115. Wakelee H.A., Burns M., Gubens M., et al. A phase II study of saracatinib (AZD0530) a SRC inhibitor administered orally daily to patients with advanced thymic malignancies. J Thorac Oncol 2010, 5:368.
116. Strobel P., Bargou R., Wolff A. Sunitinib in metastatic thymic carcinomas: laboratory findings and initial clinical experience. Br J Cancer 2010, 103:196-200.
117. Li X.F., Chen Q., Huang W.X., Ye Y.B. Response to sorafenib in cisplatin-resistant thymic carcinoma: a case report. Med Oncol 2009, 26:157-160.
118. Bisagni G., Rossi G., Cavazza A., et al. Long lasting response to the multikinase inhibitor Bay 43-9006 (Sorafenib) in a heavily pretreated metastatic thymic carcinoma. J Thorac Oncol 2009, 4:773-775.
119. Palmieri G., Marino M., Salvatore M., et al. Cetuximab is an active treatment of metastatic and chemorefractory thymoma. Front Biosci 2007, 12:757-761.
120. Farina G., Garassino M.C., Gambacorta M., et al. Response of thymoma to cetuximab. Lancet Oncol 2007, 8:449-450.
121. Kurup A., Burns M., Dropcho S. Phase II study of gefitinib treatment in advanced thymic malignancies. J Clin Oncol ASCO 2005, 23:7068.
122. Christodoulou C., Murray S., Dahabreh J., et al. Response of malignant thymoma to erlotinib. Ann Oncol 2008, 19:1361-1362.
123. Bedano M., Perkins S., Burns M. A phase II trial of erlotinib plus bevacizumab in patients with recurrent thymoma or thymic carcinoma. J Clin Oncol 2008, 26:19087.
124. Yoh K., Nishiwakia Y., Ishii G., et al. Mutational status of EGFR and KIT in thymoma and thymic carcinoma. Lung Cancer 2008, 62:316-320.
125. Marino M., Lattanzio R., Lauriola L., et al. Expression of angiogenesis-related biomarkers in thymic epithelial tumors. J Thorac Oncol 2010, 5:169-170.
126. Zucali P.A., Petrini I., Lorenzi E. Insulin-like growth factor-1 receptor and phosphorylated AKT-serine 473 expression in 132 resected thymomas and thymic carcinomas. Cancer 2010, 116:4686-4695.
127. Breinig M., Mayer P., Harjung A., Goeppert B., et al. Heat shock Protein 90-sheltered overexpression of insulin-like growth factor 1 receptor contributes to malignancy of thymic epithelial tumors. Clin Cancer Res 2011, 17:2237-2249.
128. Rajan A., Berman A.W., Kelly R.J., et al. Phase II study of the insulin-like growth factor-1 receptor antibody cixutumumab in patients with thymoma and thymic carcinoma. J Clin Oncol ASCO 2010, 28:e17525.
129. Haluska P., Shaw H.M., Batzel G.N., et al. Phase I dose escalation study of the anti-insulin-like growth factor-i receptor monoclonal antibody cp-751, 871 in patients with refractory solid tumors. Clin Cancer Res 2007, 13:5834-5840.
130. Lara P.N. Malignant thymoma: current status and future directions. Cancer Treat Rev 2000, 26:127-131.
131. Masaoka A., Monden Y., Nakahara K. Tanioka. Follow-up study of thymomas with special reference to their clinical stages. Cancer 1981, 48:2485-2492.
132. Schütte J. Thymome 1995, Springer Verlag, Heidelberg, Germany.
133. http://www.clinicaltrials.gov.