The history of walking and the digital Turn: Stride and Lounge in London, 1808-1851

Journal of Modern History

Volumn 84, Issue 1, 2012, Pages 116-144

  Guldi, Joanna ^a  

^a HARVARD UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84859951281     PISSN: 00222801     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1086/663350     Document Type: Article

References (148)

1. Logan Pearsall Smith, The English Language (New York, 1912), 85-95
2. John A. Nist, A Structural History of English (New York, 1966), 43
3. R. W. Burchfield, The English Language (Oxford, 1985), 311.
4. Raymond Williams, Keywords: A Vocabulary of Culture and Society (New York, 1976), 12
5. R. Porter, "Consumption: Disease of the Consumer Society? in Consumption and the World of Goods (London, 1993), 58-81.
6. Michel de Certeau, The Practice of Everyday Life (Minneapolis, 1998), xx-xiv.
7. Thomas de Quincey, The Confessions of an English Opium Eater (London, 1900 [1821]), 187.
8. Edgar Allan Poe, "The Man of the Crowd, " in Collected Works, ed. Thomas Ollive Mabbott (Cambridge, 1978), 2:506-15.
9. Walter Benjamin, "The Return of the Flâneur, " in Selected Writings (Cambridge, 1996), 2:262-67.
10. "The Paris of the Second Empire in Baudelaire, " Selected Writings, 4:3-75.
11. Lynda Nead, "Animating the Everyday: London on Camera circa 1900, " Journal of British Studies 43, no. 1 (January 2004): 65-162
12. Judith R. Walkowitz, City of Dreadful Delight (Chicago, 1992).
13. David Scobey, "Anatomy of the Promenade: The Politics of Bourgeois Sociability in Nineteenth-Century New York, " Social History 17, no. 2 (May 1992): 203-27
14. Gregory Shaya, "The Flâneur, the Badaud, and the Making of a Mass Public in France, circa 1860-1910, " American Historical Review 109, no. 1 (February 2004): 41-77.
15. Benjamin, "The Return of the Flâneur"
16. Shaya, "The Flâneur, the Badaud, and the Making of a Mass Public in France. "
17. R. Samuel, "Reading the Signs: Fact-Grubbers and Mind-Readers, " History Workshop Journal 33 (1992): 220ff.
18. Cf. James Vernon, "Who's Afraid of the 'Linguistic Turn'? The Politics of Social History and Its Discontents, " Social History 19, no. 1 (January 1994): 81-97
19. Michael Bentley, "Victorian Politics and the Linguistic Turn, " Historical Journal 42, no. 3 (September 1999): 883-902
20. P. Joyce, "The End of Social History?" Social History (1995): 73-91.
21. Joel Pinney, An Exposure of the Causes of the Present Deteriorated Condition of Health (London, 1830), 39.
22. John Caspar Lavater, Essays on Physiognomy (London, 1804), 3:223.
23. John Caspar Lavater, Essays on Physiognomy (London, 1804), 3:223.
24. John Caspar Lavater, Essays on Physiognomy (London, 1804), 3:223.
25. Lavater, Essays on Physiognomy, 3:222.
26. Richard Lovell Edgeworth, "Stage-Coach Physiognomists, " Literary Gazette of Belles Lettres, Arts, Sciences, &c. 462 (November 26, 1825): 754. The narrator in the short story "First Quarrels" described applying physiognomy to better understand the young lovers seated opposite her in a steamboat.
27. "First Quarrels, " Chamber's Edinburgh Journal 304 (October 27, 1849): 260.
28. "Phadde and His Friends, " Tait's Edinburgh Magazine 2 (1835): 231.
29. Sean Shesgreen, Images of the Outcast: The Urban Poor in the Cries of London (New Brunswick, NJ, 2002), 156-72
30. C. Hindley, A History of the Cries of London (London, 1884). Taxonomies such as the Cries of London in particular benefited from the logic of physiognomy, with its attention toward musculature as a determinant of character. The ancient "Cries of London" series was updated to a richly illustrated, reproducible, contemporary commentary, William Craig's Itinerant Traders (1804)
31. it was followed by John T. Smith's Vagabondiana (1817).
32. and The Cries of London (1839).
33. For the French chronology, Raymond Grew, "Picturing the People: Images of the Lower Orders in Nineteenth-Century French Art, " Journal of Interdisciplinary History 17, no. 1 (Summer 1986): 203-31.
34. Quoted in D. H. Solkin, Painting for Money: The Visual Arts and the Public Sphere in Eighteenth-Century England (New Haven, CT, 1993), 23, 31.
35. "Familiar Lectures on Physiognomy, " La Belle Assemblée 3 (1807): 214.
36. "Familiar Lectures on Physiognomy, " La Belle Assemblée 3 (1807): 214.
37. Edward Bulwer Lytton, Ernest Maltravers (Paris, 1837), 146.
38. Egan's success was replayed in a series of other rambling narratives, many of them also richly illustrated, including the anonymous Fortnight's Ramble Through London (1817), William Health's Fashion and Folly (1822, illustrated version 1833), George Smeeton's Doings in London (1828), and Renton Nicholson, Cockney Adventures
39. or, Sketches of London Life (London, 1838). On the genre of the urban ramble, David Seed, "Touring the Metropolis: The Shifting Subject of Dickens's London Sketches, " Yearbook of English Studies 34 (2004): 155-70
40. Franco Moretti, Graphs, Maps, Trees (New York, 2005)
41. Gary Kelly, The English Jacobin Novel, 1780-1805 (New York, 1976), 206-8
42. Jane Rendell, The Pursuit of Pleasure (New Brunswick, NJ, 2002), 32-33, 47-48.
43. George Alexander Cooke, Walks Through London (London, 1833), lvi
44. cf. John Thomas Smith, Vagabondiana (London, 1839)
45. Thomas Morris, London and Country Scenes (London, 1833).
46. James Grant, Travels in Town, 2 vols. (London, 1839), 1:1-2.
47. Cooke, Walks Through London, lxv.
48. Pierce Egan, The True History of Tom and Jerry (London, n.d. [1822]), xix.
49. Grant, Travels in Town.
50. See "toddle, v. " and "hoof, v., " Oxford English Dictionary. Cf. George Cruikshank, The Sinks of London Laid Open (London, 1848), 111, 127. The terms supplemented ancient words like roam and wander, and an older, fourteenth-century body of words like slink, stealth, steal, creep, slip, and slide, which referred to a wide variety of postures characterized by an attempt to disguise their movements, and seventeenthcentury generalizations for pleasure walking like ramble and stroll, with explicit characterization of the posture, gait, and pace of the walker. See "roam, v., " "wander, v., " "slink, v., " "stealth, v., " "creep, v., " "slip, v., " "slide, v., " "ramble, v., " "stroll, v., " Oxford English Dictionary.
51. The London Guide, 2nd ed. (London, 1819)
52. John Wallas, London (London, 1803), 452-53
53. Two Citizens of the World, How to Live in London (London, 1828), 99.
54. The London Guide. Cf Francis Grose, Lexicon Balatronicum (London, 1811), which defined "to dodge or dog, " "a bandy-legged walk, " "to toddle, " and "to strut like a crow in a gutter"
55. John Bee, Slang (London, 1823), 190, which defined "a walloping sort of fellow" as "one whose gait or walk is of an aukward [sic] kind, rolling, knock-kneed, unkid, and difficult. " All three nineteenth-century dictionaries tout themselves as access to the cant of "dandy" as well as the criminal. The words themselves were frequently semantic extensions from other contexts (see "lurch" and "lark" below, n. 33) or regional and Gaelic dialect terms extended to indicate a provincial variant on a London walk (see "streel" and "soodle" below, n. 33). The absorption of dialect benefited from glossaries appended to the novels of Sir Walter Scott.
56. David Booth, An Analytic Dictionary of the English Language (London, 1836), 295.
57. Cf. George Crabbe, English Synonymes, 10th ed. (New York, 1849), 192: "A person's carriage is somewhat natural to him: it is often an indication of character, but admits of great change by education
58. we may always distinguish a man as high or low, either in mind or station, by his carriage;... we may contract a certain gait by habit; the gait is therefore often taken for a bad habit of going, as when a person has a limping gait, or an unsteady gait. "
59. "Slodge, v., " "limp, v., " "lurch, v., " "palmer, v., " Oxford English Dictionary. Cf. The Queer Book (London, 1832), 169: "The Laird then mounted his gallant steed, / And forth unto the west rode he, Where he was aware of ane Beggar man / Coming slowly slodging o'er the lea. " William Makepeace Thackeray, The History of Pendennis (London, 1850), 2:89: "The champagne and the rack punch, though taken in moderation by all persons, except perhaps poor Cos, who lurched ever so little in his gait, had set them in high spirits and good humour, so that Fanny began to skip and move her brisk little feet in time to the band, which was playing waltzes and galops for the dancers. " James Justin Morier, The Mirza (London, 1841), 2:133: "His naturally crooked legs were become doubly so, in consequence of his limping gait, whilst his face betrayed pain of body and mortification of mind. " These words pertain more generally to the intention or attitude with which different people moved across the landscape. The verb "crabsidle, " which appeared around 1800, was a merely visual term for shuffling sideways, suggestive of a hunched furtiveness of movement in crowded streets, or slyly hugging the shadows of a passageway. "Lark, " the name of a darting bird, began to refer, after 1810, to frolicsome, adventuresome riding across the countryside, just as the creature made its way through the air. At the same time, the word began to refer, either as a verb or a noun, to any sort of carriage, bearing, or activity partaking of darting, merry behavior. "Streel, " a verb variant from a Gaelic form that appeared in common English usage in 1805, suggested an idle, strolling gait, as if floating above the ground without aim
60. by the 1840s the term's variants (a streeler, a streeling person) could describe character, and generally signaled an untidy, caddish, disreputable, idle character. "Trit-trot" (1818), an onomatopoeic variation on the verb "trot, " applied to the dainty walk of a nimble (or frivolous) woman. "Soodle, " used after 1821, described the slow, unbothered, leisurely gate of a flaneur. It was another dialectical term borrowed for common usage for the time being
61. like many of the usages described here, it had disappeared by 1860. Cf. "crabsidle, v., " "lark, n., " "lark, v., " "streel, v., " "trit-trot, v. " (1818), "soodle, v., " Oxford English Dictionary.
62. "When George, Prince of Wales, was twenty, I have read in an old magazine, 'the Prince's lounge' was a peculiar manner of walking which the young bucks imitated. " John Camden Hotten, "Introduction, " in Pierce Egan, Tom and Jerry (London, 1869).
63. See the satirical discussion of a "Walking Academy" for Macaroni, in Touchstone, The Trifler 1, no. 39 (February 21, 1789): 496-97. The narrator insinuates that British youth have copied these attitudes from the continent, where court performance of physical attitudes had already been refined as an art. For the Macaroni in general, P. McNeil, "Macaroni Masculinities, " Fashion Theory: The Journal of Dress, Body, and Culture 4, no. 4 (2000): 373-403.
64. George Crabbe, "The Borough" [1810], in The Poetical Works of Crabbe, Heber, and Pollok (Philadelphia, 1839), 89.
65. In 1869, the literary critic John Camden Hotten would write that the investigation of these words for walking-stroll, ramble, and strut-was the major contribution to literature of the 1820s. Hotten reckoned that a certain personal mode of carriage had been used as a means of distinction among the aristocracy for long before any writer had recorded it. Hotten, "Introduction. " For the evidence of imitation across classes, Letters from an Irish Student in England, 2 vols. (London, 1809), found a "swarm of young clerks in the office" of banking and commercial houses imitating the Bond Street lounge, "some booted and spurred as if they had been riding at the morning. " He also describes servants famous for imitating Bond Street walks and Bond Street fashion. 1:195-96. Cf. "Family of the Honeycombs, " New Monthly Magazine 9 (1825): 173: "Loungers are divided into numerous classes, from the real dandy, who is badly imitated by the dandy commonly so called, down to the ambitious apprentice who dips into Bond-street in a flutter, and begins regulating his hands and his gait after the fashion of the glories about him. "
66. C. A. G. Goede, The Stranger in England; or, Travels in Great Britain, 3 vols. (London, 1807), 1:50.
67. Mordecai, "The Jew of Clare Market, " The Idler 1, no. 6 (June 17, 1837): 41.
68. Mordecai, "The Jew of Clare Market, " The Idler 1, no. 6 (June 17, 1837): 41.
69. "The Lungs of London, " Blackwood's Magazine (August 1839), 225.
70. "Public Promenades, " New Monthly Magazine 10 (1824): 385.
71. Mordecai, "The Jew of Clare Market, " 41.
72. Letters from an Irish Student, 1:196.
73. Sam Weller, Sam Weller's Budget of Recitations (London, 1838).
74. See "strut, v., " "process, v., " and "major, v., " Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd ed. (1989). Cf. "Cash and Pedigree, " Blackwood's Edinburgh Magazine (April 1850): 442: "M. Levrault, in whose roseate dreams a count's coronet nightly recurs, and who has more than once alarmed the house by rehearsing in his sleep the maiden speech that is to electrify the Chamber of Peers-has passed two entire days majoring before his mirror in white cassimere smalls, embroidered coat, and steel-hilted rapier. "
75. "Manners Make the Man, " The Extractor 2 (1829): "They showing a superlative contempt for every one they meet-by thrusting their elbows, which they have a right to stick out from their side-pockets, as they please, against the men, and turning round and puffing the smoke of their cigars right in the faces of the women. " He quoted Castlereagh ironically: "liberty is the custom in England, " 156.
76. "Family of the Honeycombs, " 173. Hostility to slight from loungers seems to have been noticed before then. In the anonymous 1815 novel Sketches of Character, three country ladies on a stroll provoke stares when one of them begins walking too hastily among Bond Street loungers. " 'Lors, Elizer, why d'ye walk so fast?' exclaimed Miss Maria from behind. 'You found fault with me for talking so loud just now, and I'm sure it's wuss to tramp on like that.' 'And more vulgerer by half' added Miss Grimshaw. " Sketches of Character (London, 1815), 2:108.
77. "Before you see their protuberant bellies,-which is more than they can, for the fifth button of the collar terminates the extent of the vista to their eyes,-you catch an a posteriori view of their legs, which, in tight black silk stockings, look prodigiously like a pair of peripatetic black-puddings, or in white ditto, still more like a brace of balustrades removed from Blackfriars-bridge. You get out of their way, as you would from a path of the Plethora personified, or run into an apothecary's to avoid 'the swashing blow' of the sanguine Apoplexy, who goes about, unseen, knocking the stoutest down, 'as the butcher felleth an ox.' " Charles Molloy Westmacott, Points of Misery, or Fables for Mankind (London, 1823).
78. James Beresford, Miseries of Human Life (1807), 1:77, 2:138, 163. The categories of waddlers and toddlers were evidently new as well. New words appeared to analyze the problematic gait of the tired, elderly, and fat. "Waddle" was another Elizabethan term, but "twaddle, " a dialectical term for a feeble, uncertain waddle, as of a heavy and elderly gentleman, appeared in 1823. "Poddle, " another altered colloquialism adopted for more general use, referred to walking with the slow, short steps of an infant or geriatric. The noun "toddle, " and its term "toddler, " both appeared in 1825, as variations on the noun "tot" for a small child. The verb had described the waddling, tottering walk of a child learning to walk since the seventeenth century, but after 1800 it was extended to the awkward walk of tired or maladjusted adults, and playful variants appeared, like the verb "tot" (1824). See "waddle, v., " "poddle, v., " and "toddle, v., " Oxford English Dictionary. Cf. the riotously politically incorrect jeers at poddling amputees, John B. Derby, Musings of a Recluse (Boston, 1830), 159: "Ah! but (they say,) without a leg, / Your destiny must be to beg
79. / Legs make the man, in yankee land, / Where all of life is but to stand / Or travel; active life my lad / Is the sole way to live;-you're mad; / Your mind, arms, tongue, eyes, nose, and noddle, / Are worthless, if you're doomed to poddle. " George Mogridge, Pithy Papers on Singular Subjects (London, 1847), 84: "On he went, as I stood still, waddling, limping, and treading tenderly, according to the smoothness or roughness of his path. " "Souls of the Drowned, " Metropolitan Magazine 30 (1831): 231: "Hardly had he uttered these words, when he saw the house on the greensward before him, and a form stepping out of it, thick as a beer barrel, waddling along upon short splay feet. "
80. James Gilray, "All of Bond Street Trembled as He Strode" (London, 1802).
81. James Gilray, "The Three Mr. Wiggins's" (London, 1803). For George Mathew's views on reforming the unchurched, which bears parallels to the contemporary theology of atonement, Richard Yates, The Basis of National Welfare (London, 1817), 351-52.
82. Mordecai, "The Jew of Clare Market, " 41.
83. "Dr. Cross on Foot and Leg, " Edinburgh Monthly Magazine (August 1819): 539.
84. Dror Wahrman, "'Middle-Class' Domesticity Goes Public: Gender, Class, and Politics from Queen Caroline to Queen Victoria, " Journal of British Studies 32, no. 4 (October 1993): 396-432
85. John R. Gillis, "Ritualization of Middle-Class Family Life in Nineteenth Century Britain, " International Journal of Politics, Culture, and Society 3, no. 2 (Winter 1989): 213-35
86. Boyd Hilton, The Age of Atonement (Oxford, 1992)
87. Leonore Davidoff and Catherine Hall, Family Fortunes, 2nd ed. (New York, 2003). Anna Jameson observes, in her Diary of an Ennuyée (Boston, 1833): "The different appearance of the streets of London and Paris is the first thing to strike a stranger. In the gayest and most crowded streets of London the people move steadily and rapidly along, with a grave collected air, as if all had some business in view; here, as a little girl observed the other day, all the people walk about ' like ladies and gentlemen going a visiting:' the women well dressed and smiling, and with a certain jaunty air, trip along with their peculiar mincing step, and appear as if their sole object was but to show themselves; the men ill-dressed, slovenly, and in general ill-looking, lounge indolently, and stare as if they had no other purpose in life but to look about them, " 16.
88. Mogridge, Pithy Papers on Singular Subjects, 83-84.
89. "Straight, a., n., and adv., " Oxford English Dictionary (Oxford, 2006).
90. In passing other pedestrians, the stroller should "edge along by turning sideways, contracting his arms, and watching with his eyes the direction which it is best to take in order not to come into contact with the person who meets him. " Elizabeth Celnart, The Gentleman and Lady's Book of Politeness (Boston, 1833), 52.
91. Despite temptation, "a gentlewoman should never forget herself, should never do anything that is ungentle, should never run, jump, scream, scramble, and push, in order
92. John Farrar, The Young Lady's Friend (New York, 1849), 289. Cf. the first, reduced, London version, A Lady [pseudo. John Farrar], The Young Lady's Friend (London, 1838), which omits this poignant passage, but makes similar references to "elbowing, " for instance, 138. Farrar first published in Boston in 1836, and his book was immediately reviewed at length by transatlantic journals like The Christian Examiner 22, no. 4 (1837): 90-101, which published in both Boston and London. The book then went into numerous editions published on both sides of the Atlantic, but few copies survive. This essay assumes the equal relevance of both American and British editions, and indiscriminately quotes from the fullest, New York edition, as the best representative of Farrar's ideas.
93. In the 1680s, Laroon was probably the first artist working in the common genre of depicting professions of the city to abandon the ancient practice of showing anonymous laborers in undifferentiated jerkins and instead to give each profession a distinctive dress by calling, class, and gender. Only in the 1760s did Paul Sandby begin to alter the Cries of London to depict the filthy dress and tattered rags of hawkers as they probably existed, or to play with the taunting strut of the streetwalker or menacing posture of the haggling fishwife. In the 1790s Thomas Rowlandson began playing with posture and movement, depicting the sneer of a psychopathic lace vendor and the wild lurching of a peddlar with his typical emphasis on the human body on the brink of losing control. Shesgreen, Images of the Outcast, 51, 127-30, 143.
94. See "clamp, v., " "clamper, v., " "clomp, v., " "down-at-heel, adj., " "slip-shod, adj., " "slip-slopper, adj., " Oxford English Dictionary. "Down-at-heel" and "slip-shod" appeared to describe the shoes themselves in the seventeenth century, and these terms were extended to refer to a general class of life only in the nineteenth century. Another word, "slip-slopper" (1825), could refer either to the dragging walk of someone wearing slippers (too poor to afford shoes) or to a similar sloppy dress or class of life. Cf. "Lord Killikenny, " Metropolitan Magazine 30 (1851): 334: "I wish somebody would come and catch you, miss, with your wig like a hedgehog, and your gown without a string or a button, and your shoes down at heel, all slipshod. " Charles Dickens, Master Humphrey's Clock (Leipzig, 1846), 291: "He did not cut a very insinuating figure
95. for a man of his stature suffers in a crowd; and having been active in yesterday morning's work, his dress was literally crushed from head to foot: his hat being beaten out of all shape, and his shoes trodden down at heel like slippers. " The Comic Offering 5 (1835): 166: "At this juncture, a Swiss peasant in sabots came, clomp, clomp, clomping into the room, with a large monkey on his shoulder, which, dropping suddenly among the mob, dispersed them in a moment. There was something admirably characteristic of the animal, both in the disguise and the action-in fact, the young gentleman aped the monkey to the life. " "Some Account of Constantinople, " Saturday Magazine 21, no. 647 (September 1842): 126: "The gait of both men and women thus encumbered, is singularly awkward and helpless
96. the feet scrape the ground, and the sole of the slipper, which scarcely adheres to the point of the toe, is dragged along, continually flapping against the heel. "
97. "Description of a Hot Day, " Leigh Hunt's London Journal 17 (July 23, 1834): 132. Cf. Mogridge, Pithy Papers on Singular Subjects, 84: "I was standing still, and watching the movements of the green-shaded passenger, when a short, thick-set man came waddling along, with slits cut along the sides of his shoes. How softly did he move, and how carefully did he put down his poor feet to the ground. It would manifest but little shrewdness on my part, were I to suspect that he had both corns and bunions
98. for the case was so plain, that to have doubted it would have been a libel on my powers of perception and understanding. If molehills did not literally become mountains to the tender-footed pedestrian, at least it may be asserted, with truth, that a very small stone was to him a source of very great annoyance. "
99. Peter Hawker, Instructions to Young Sportsmen (London, 1819), 88.
100. Ready-made clothing received a boost through the army purchases of the Napoleonic Wars, and gear for walking comprised a growing category of interest in the years after Waterloo. R. A. Church, "Labour Supply and Innovation 1800-1860: The Boot and Shoe Industry, " Business History 12, no. 1 (1970): 25-45
101. B. Lemire, Dress, Culture, and Commerce (New York, 1997)
102. M. Zakim, "Sartorial Ideologies: From Homespun to Ready-Made, " American Historical Review 106, no. 5 (2001): 1553-86
103. P. Perrot, Fashioning the Bourgeoisie (Princeton, NJ, 1994)
104. Stella Blum, Paul M. Ettesvold, and Jean L. Druesedow, "Riding Habit, " in Notable Acquisitions (Metropolitan Museum of Art), (1975-1979) (New York, 1979), 43-44
105. Rendell, The Pursuit of Pleasure, 52-53
106. Michael Zakim, "Customizing the Industrial Revolution: The Reinvention of Tailoring in the Nineteenth Century, " Winterthur Portfolio 33, no. 1 (Spring 1998): 41-58
107. Lorna Weatherill, Consumer Behavior and Material Culture in Britain, 1660-1760 (London, 1988)
108. Carole Shammas, The Pre-Industrial Consumer in England and America (Oxford, 1990)
109. Beverly Lemire, "Redressing the History of the Clothing Trade in England: Ready-Made Clothing, Guilds, and Women Workers, 1650-1800, " Dress 21 (1994): 62-64.
110. Dress, Culture, and Commerce: The English Clothing Trade before the Factory, 1660-1800 (Houndmills, 1997)
111. George Walker, The Cyclopaedia of the British Costumes from the Metropolitan Repository of Fashions (London, 1823-47).
112. For the culture of romantic walking, Anne Wallace, Walking, Literature, and English Culture: The Origins and Uses of Peripatetic in the Nineteenth Century (Oxford, 1993)
113. Robin Jarvis, Romantic Writing and Pedestrian Travel (New York, 1997)
114. R. Solnit, Wanderlust: A History of Walking (New York, 2001)
115. Celeste Langan, Romantic Vagrancy: Wordsworth and the Simulation of Freedom, Cambridge Studies in Romanticism, vol. 15 (Cambridge, 1995)
116. W. Thom, Pedestrianism (London, 1813)
117. J. Sparkes Hall, The Book of the Feet (New York, 1847), 125, 143
118. Hawker, Instructions to Young Sportsmen, 88, 224.
119. David Yosifon and Peter N. Stearns, "The Rise and Fall of American Posture, " American Historical Review 103, no. 4 (October 1998): 1059.
120. The Spectator 66 (May 16, 1711)
121. William Hogarth, "Of Dancing, " in The Analysis of Beauty (London, 1810 [1753])
122. C. J. Rawson, "Gentlemen and Dancing-Masters: Thoughts on Fielding, Chesterfield, and the Genteel, " Eighteenth-Century Studies 1, no. 2 (Winter 1967): 127-58
123. Jennifer Thorp, "Mr. Isaac, Dancing-Master, " Dance Research 24, no. 2 (Winter 2006): 117-37.
124. See above on the dissemination of Farrar. The genre of the dancing master's etiquette book seems to have originated in London and spread to Boston, Philadelphia, and New York by mimesis. Early examples include: Pierre Blanchard, The Youth's Treasure (London, 1804)
125. George Moutard Woodward, Politeness (London, 1811)
126. Dorothy Kilner, Dialogues and Letters on Morality, Economy, and Politeness (London, 1816)
127. Lady de S., The Spirit of Etiquette; or, Politeness Exemplified (London, 1837)
128. Theresa Jill Buckland, "Edward Scott: The Last of the English Dancing Masters, " Dance Research 21, no. 2 (Winter 2003): 3-35.
129. A Lady, A Treatise on Politeness (London, 1812), 29.
130. The Young Lady's Book (London, 1829).
131. A Lady, A Treatise on Politeness, 29.
132. Carlo Blasis, The Code of Terpsichore: The Art of Dancing (London, 1828), 103.
133. "Dr. Cross on Foot and Leg, " 539.
134. Blasis, The Code of Terpsichore, 103.
135. "Medical Essays, " Medical Intelligencer 5, no. 24 (October 30, 1827): 382.
136. Joel Pinney, An Exposure to the Causes of the Present Deteriorated Condition of Health (London, 1830), 39
137. E. R. Anderson, "Footnotes More Pedestrian Than Sublime: A Historical Background for the Foot-Races in Evelina and Humphry Clinker, " Eighteenth Century Studies 14, no. 1 (1980): 56-68
138. cf. the earlier treatise by transport enthusiast John Sinclair, The Code of Health and Longevity (Edinburgh, 1807), which argued, "There is no exercise more natural to us, or in every respect more conducive to health, than walking.... It is the most perfect exercise in which the human body can be employed
139. for by it, every limb is put in motion, and the circulation of the blood is effectually carried on throughout the minutest veins, and arteries of the system.... The mode in which a person walks, is a matter of considerable importance. Besides the advantage of walking gracefully, a person may be taught to walk with more ease, and less personal fatigue, than would be the case, without some attention.... This, however, depends much upon early and constant practice; and the lessons of the dancing-master may afterwards improve what has been naturally acquired by early habit, " 1:628. Sinclair too pointed to sedentary, urban occupations as a root cause of the deterioration of health.
140. C. D. Hemphill, "Middle Class Rising in Revolutionary America: The Evidence from Manners, " Journal of Social History 30, no. 2 (1996): 320
141. Yosifon and Stearns, "The Rise and Fall of American Posture, " 1061.
142. It continued, "You ought neither to trot like a Highland caddy, nor waddle with pomp and circumstance, like an Edinburgh bailie, but cultivate an easy, grave, and dignified demeanour. " "Letter to the Ettrick Shepherd, " Blackwood's Edinburgh Magazine (July 1824), 89. Cf. Frances Trollope, describing the ugliness of Americans: "They do not walk well, nor, in fact, do they ever appear to advantage when in movement. I know not why this should be, for they have abundance of French dancing masters among them, but somehow or other it is the fact. " She continues, "I never saw an American man walk or stand well: notwithstanding their frequent militia drilling. " Discipline was clearly not enough to transfer the gait; mimesis in context was also required. Frances Trollope, Domestic Manners of the Americans (New York, [1832] 1901), 135-36.
143. See also Frances Anne Butler [Fanny Kemble], Journal of a Residence in America (Brussels, 1835), 141.
144. Dror Wahrman, Imagining the Middle Class (Cambridge, 1995)
145. Leonor Davidoff and Catherine Hall, Family Fortunes (New York, 2003)
146. Boyd Hilton, The Age of Atonement (New York, 1992)
147. P. Harling and P. Mandler, "From 'Fiscal-Military' State to Laissez-Faire State, 1760-1850, " Journal of British Studies 32, no. 1 (1993): 44
148. Philip Harling, The Waning of "Old Corruption" (Oxford, 1996).