The Unique Features of Traumatic Brain Injury in Children. Review of the Characteristics of the Pediatric Skull and Brain, Mechanisms of Trauma, Patterns of Injury, Complications, and their Imaging Findings-Part 2

Journal of Neuroimaging

Volumn 22, Issue 2, 2012, Pages

  Pinto, Pedro S ^a   Meoded, Avner ^a   Poretti, Andrea ^b   Tekes, Aylin ^a   Huisman, Thierry A G M ^a  

^a JOHNS HOPKINS HOSPITAL   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY CHILDREN S HOSPITAL   (Switzerland)

Author keywords

Birth trauma; Computed tomography; Cortical contusion; Diffuse axonal injury; Epidural hematoma; Facial trauma; Intraventricular hemorrhage; Magnetic resonance imaging; Nonaccidental head injury; Pediatric traumatic brain injury; Primary injury; Secondary injury; Skull fractures; Subarachnoid hemorrhage; Subdural hematoma

Indexed keywords

BIRTH INJURY; BRAIN; BRAIN ANGIOGRAPHY; BRAIN CONCUSSION; BRAIN EDEMA; BRAIN HEMATOMA; BRAIN HEMORRHAGE; BRAIN HERNIA; BRAIN ISCHEMIA; CAPUT SUCCEDANEUM; CEPHALOHEMATOMA; CEREBROSPINAL FLUID OTORRHEA; CEREBROSPINAL FLUID RHINORRHEA; CEREBROVASCULAR ACCIDENT; CHILDHOOD DISEASE; CLINICAL FEATURE; COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHIC ANGIOGRAPHY; COMPUTER ASSISTED TOMOGRAPHY; DIFFUSION TENSOR IMAGING; DIFFUSION WEIGHTED IMAGING; ENCEPHALOMALACIA; EXTRAAXIAL HEMORRHAGE; FACE INJURY; FUNCTIONAL MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; HUMAN; HYDROCEPHALUS; INTRACRANIAL HYPERTENSION; LIQUORRHEA; MAGNETIC RESONANCE ANGIOGRAPHY; PROTON NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE; REVIEW; SKULL; SKULL FRACTURE; SKULL INJURY; SUBARACHNOID HEMORRHAGE; SUBDURAL HEMATOMA; SUBGALEAL HEMORRHAGE; TRAUMATIC BRAIN INJURY;

AGE FACTORS; BRAIN; BRAIN INJURIES; CHILD; HUMANS; NEUROIMAGING; SKULL;

EID: 84859724565     PISSN: 10512284     EISSN: 15526569     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1552-6569.2011.00690.x     Document Type: Review

References (80)

1. Le TH, Gean AD. Neuroimaging of traumatic brain injury. Mt Sinai J Med 2009;76:145-162.
2. Practice parameter: the management of concussion in sports (summary statement). Report of the Quality Standards Subcommittee. Neurology 1997;48:581-585.
3. Thiessen ML, Woolridge DP. Pediatric minor closed head injury. Pediatr Clin North Am 2006;53:1-26.
4. Aubry M, Cantu R, Dvorak J, et al. Summary and agreement statement of the 1st International Symposium on Concussion in Sport, Vienna 2001. Clin J Sport Med 2002;12:6-11.
5. Ommaya AK, Gennarelli TA. Cerebral concussion and traumatic unconsciousness. Correlation of experimental and clinical observations of blunt head injuries. Brain 1974;97:633-654.
6. Sosin DM, Sniezek JE, Thurman DJ. Incidence of mild and moderate brain injury in the United States, 1991. Brain Inj 1996;10:47-54.
7. Davis RL, Mullen N, Makela M, et al. Cranial computed tomography scans in children after minimal head injury with loss of consciousness. Ann Emerg Med 1994;24:640-645.
8. Meehan WP, 3rd, Bachur RG. Sport-related concussion. Pediatrics 2009;123:114-123.
9. McCrory P, Johnston K, Meeuwisse W, et al. Summary and agreement statement of the 2nd International Conference on Concussion in Sport, Prague 2004. Br J Sports Med 2005;39:196-204.
10. Wilde EA, McCauley SR, Hunter JV, et al. Diffusion tensor imaging of acute mild traumatic brain injury in adolescents. Neurology 2008;70:948-955.
11. Difiori JP, Giza CC. New techniques in concussion imaging. Curr Sports Med Rep 9:35-39.
12. Chen JK, Johnston KM, Frey S, et al. Functional abnormalities in symptomatic concussed athletes: an fMRI study. Neuroimage 2004;22:68-82.
13. Bernardi B, Zimmerman RA, Bilaniuk LT. Neuroradiologic evaluation of pediatric craniocerebral trauma. Top Magn Reson Imaging 1993;5:161-173.
14. Quayle KS, Jaffe DM, Kuppermann N, et al. Diagnostic testing for acute head injury in children: when are head computed tomography and skull radiographs indicated? Pediatrics 1997;99:E11.
15. Schutzman SA, Greenes DS. Pediatric minor head trauma. Ann Emerg Med 2001;37:65-74.
16. Brunelle F, Boddaert N. Imaging of pediatric head injury. J Radiol 2005;86:253-262.
17. Ersahin Y, Gulmen V, Palali I, et al. Growing skull fractures (craniocerebral erosion). Neurosurg Rev 2000;23:139-144.
18. Tang PH, Lim CC. Imaging of accidental paediatric head trauma. Pediatr Radiol 2009;39:438-446.
19. Poussaint TY, Moeller KK. Imaging of pediatric head trauma. Neuroimaging Clin N Am 2002;12:271-294.
20. Muhonen MG, Piper JG, Menezes AH. Pathogenesis and treatment of growing skull fractures. Surg Neurol 1995;43:367-372; discussion 372-363.
21. Husson B, Pariente D, Tammam S, et al. The value of MRI in the early diagnosis of growing skull fracture. Pediatr Radiol 1996;26:744-747.
22. Hackney DB. Skull radiography in the evaluation of acute head trauma: a survey of current practice. Radiology 1991;181:711-714.
23. Zapalac JS, Marple BF, Schwade ND. Skull base cerebrospinal fluid fistulas: a comprehensive diagnostic algorithm. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 2002;126:669-676.
24. Alcala-Galiano A, Arribas-Garcia IJ, Martin-Perez MA, et al. Pediatric facial fractures: children are not just small adults. Radiographics 2008;28:441-461; quiz 618.
25. Zimmermann CE, Troulis MJ, Kaban LB. Pediatric facial fractures: recent advances in prevention, diagnosis and management. Int J Oral Maxillofac Surg 2006;35:2-13.
26. Gassner R, Tuli T, Hachl O, et al. Craniomaxillofacial trauma in children: a review of 3, 385 cases with 6, 060 injuries in 10 years. J Oral Maxillofac Surg 2004;62:399-407.
27. Thoren H, Iizuka T, Hallikainen D, et al. Radiologic changes of the temporomandibular joint after condylar fractures in childhood. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod 1998;86:738-745.
28. Meier JD, Tollefson TT. Pediatric facial trauma. Curr Opin Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 2008;16:555-561.
29. Wright DL, Hoffman HT, Hoyt DB. Frontal sinus fractures in the pediatric population. Laryngoscope 1992;102:1215-1219.
30. Criden MR, Ellis FJ. Linear nondisplaced orbital fractures with muscle entrapment. J AAPOS 2007;11:142-147.
31. Baykaner K, Alp H, Ceviker N, et al. Observation of 95 patients with extradural hematoma and review of the literature. Surg Neurol 1988;30:339-341.
32. Case ME. Accidental traumatic head injury in infants and young children. Brain Pathol 2008;18:583-589.
33. Leggate JR, Lopez-Ramos N, Genitori L, et al. Extradural haematoma in infants. Br J Neurosurg 1989;3:533-539.
34. Zimmerman RA, Bilaniuk LT. Computed tomographic staging of traumatic epidural bleeding. Radiology 1982;144:809-812.
35. Huisman TA, Tschirch FT. Epidural hematoma in children: do cranial sutures act as a barrier? J Neuroradiol 2009;36:93-97.
36. Al-Nakshabandi NA. The swirl sign. Radiology 2001;218:433.
37. Hahn YS, Chyung C, Barthel MJ, et al. Head injuries in children under 36 months of age. Demography and outcome. Childs Nerv Syst 1988;4:34-40.
38. Khoshyomn S, Tranmer BI. Diagnosis and management of pediatric closed head injury. Semin Pediatr Surg 2004;13:80-86.
39. Duhaime AC, Christian CW, Rorke LB, et al. Nonaccidental head injury in infants-the "shaken-baby syndrome". N Engl J Med 1998;338:1822-1829.
40. Loh JK, Lin CL, Kwan AL, et al. Acute subdural hematoma in infancy. Surg Neurol 2002;58:218-224.
41. Chen CY, Chou TY, Zimmerman RA, et al. Pericerebral fluid collection: differentiation of enlarged subarachnoid spaces from subdural collections with color Doppler US. Radiology 1996;20:389-392.
42. Gentry LR, Thompson B, Godersky JC. Trauma to the corpus callosum: MR features. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 1988;9:1129-1138.
43. Blackman JA, Rice SA, Matsumoto JA, et al. Brain imaging as a predictor of early functional outcome following traumatic brain injury in children, adolescents, and young adults. J Head Trauma Rehabil 2003;18:493-503.
44. Graham DI. Paediatric head injury. Brain 2001;124:1261-1262.
45. Parizel PM, Van Goethem JW, Ozsarlak O, et al. New developments in the neuroradiological diagnosis of craniocerebral trauma. Eur Radiol 2005;15:569-581.
46. Mittl RL, Grossman RI, Hiehle JF, et al. Prevalence of MR evidence of diffuse axonal injury in patients with mild head injury and normal head CT findings. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 1994;15:1583-1589.
47. Ashikaga R, Araki Y, Ishida O. MRI of head injury using FLAIR. Neuroradiology 1997;39:239-242.
48. Huisman TA, Sorensen AG, Hergan K, et al. Diffusion-weighted imaging for the evaluation of diffuse axonal injury in closed head injury. J Comput Assist Tomogr 2003;27:5-11.
49. Tong KA, Ashwal S, Holshouser BA, et al. Hemorrhagic shearing lesions in children and adolescents with posttraumatic diffuse axonal injury: improved detection and initial results. Radiology 2003;227:332-339.
50. Wilde EA, Bigler ED, Haider JM, et al. Vulnerability of the anterior commissure in moderate to severe pediatric traumatic brain injury. J Child Neurol 2006;21:769-776.
51. Huisman TA, Schwamm LH, Schaefer PW, et al. Diffusion tensor imaging as potential biomarker of white matter injury in diffuse axonal injury. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 2004;25:370-376.
52. Gentry LR, Godersky JC, Thompson B. MR imaging of head trauma: review of the distribution and radiopathologic features of traumatic lesions. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1988;150:663-672.
53. Huisman TA. Intracranial hemorrhage: ultrasound, CT and MRI findings. Eur Radiol 2005;15:434-440.
54. Willis BK, Greiner F, Orrison WW, et al. The incidence of vertebral artery injury after midcervical spine fracture or subluxation. Neurosurgery 1994;34:435-441; discussion 441-442.
55. Adams C, Trevenen C. Middle cerebral artery dissection. Neuropediatrics 1996;27:331-332.
56. Vertinsky AT, Schwartz NE, Fischbein NJ, et al. Comparison of multidetector CT angiography and MR imaging of cervical artery dissection. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 2008;29:1753-1760.
57. Lang DA, Teasdale GM, Macpherson P, et al. Diffuse brain swelling after head injury: more often malignant in adults than children? J Neurosurg 1994;80:675-680.
58. van Lookeren Campagne M, Verheul JB, Nicolay K, et al. Early evolution and recovery from excitotoxic injury in the neonatal rat brain: a study combining magnetic resonance imaging, electrical impedance, and histology. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 1994;14:1011-1023.
59. Adelson PD, Whalen MJ, Kochanek PM, et al. Blood brain barrier permeability and acute inflammation in two models of traumatic brain injury in the immature rat: a preliminary report. Acta Neurochir Suppl 1998;71:104-106.
60. Margulies SS, Thibault KL. Infant skull and suture properties: measurements and implications for mechanisms of pediatric brain injury. J Biomech Eng. 2000;122:364-371.
61. Martin C, Falcone RA, Jr. Pediatric traumatic brain injury: an update of research to understand and improve outcomes. Curr Opin Pediatr 2008;20:294-299.
62. Stone JA, Castillo M, Neelon B, et al. Evaluation of CSF leaks: high-resolution CT compared with contrast-enhanced CT and radionuclide cisternography. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 1999;20:706-712.
63. Doumouchtsis SK, Arulkumaran S. Head trauma after instrumental births. Clin Perinatol 2008;35:69-83.
64. King SJ, Boothroyd AE. Cranial trauma following birth in term infants. Br J Radiol 1998;71:233-238.
65. Johanson RB, Menon BK. Vacuum extraction versus forceps for assisted vaginal delivery. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2000:CD000224.
66. Hughes CA, Harley EH, Milmoe G, et al. Birth trauma in the head and neck. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 1999;125:193-199.
67. Looney CB, Smith JK, Merck LH, et al. Intracranial hemorrhage in asymptomatic neonates: prevalence on MR images and relationship to obstetric and neonatal risk factors. Radiology 2007;242:535-541.
68. Towner D, Castro MA, Eby-Wilkens E, et al. Effect of mode of delivery in nulliparous women on neonatal intracranial injury. N Engl J Med 1999;341:1709-1714.
69. Pollina J, Dias MS, Li V, et al. Cranial birth injuries in term newborn infants. Pediatr Neurosurg. 2001;35:113-119.
70. Volpe JJ. Neurology of the newborn. 3rd ed. Philadelphia, PA: Saunders, 1995.
71. Volpe JJ. Neonatal intracranial hemorrhage. Pathophysiology, neuropathology, and clinical features. Clin Perinatol. 1977;4:77-102.
72. Volpe JJ. Neurology of the newborn. Major Probl Clin Pediatr 1981;22:1-648.
73. Keenan HT, Runyan DK, Marshall SW, et al. A population-based study of inflicted traumatic brain injury in young children. JAMA 2003;290:621-626.
74. Goldsmith W, Plunkett J. A biomechanical analysis of the causes of traumatic brain injury in infants and children. Am J Forensic Med Pathol 2004;25:89-100.
75. Hahn YS, Raimondi AJ, McLone DG, et al. Traumatic mechanisms of head injury in child abuse. Childs Brain 1983;10:229-241.
76. Duhaime AC, Gennarelli TA, Thibault LE, et al. The shaken baby syndrome. A clinical, pathological, and biomechanical study. J Neurosurg 1987;66:409-415.
77. Meservy CJ, Towbin R, McLaurin RL, et al. Radiographic characteristics of skull fractures resulting from child abuse. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1987;149:173-175.
78. Hobbs CJ. Skull fracture and the diagnosis of abuse. Arch Dis Child 1984;59:246-252.
79. Pierce MC, Bertocci GE, Berger R, et al. Injury biomechanics for aiding in the diagnosis of abusive head trauma. Neurosurg Clin N Am 2002;13:155-168.
80. Adamsbaum C, Grabar S, Mejean N, et al. Abusive head trauma: judicial admissions highlight violent and repetitive shaking. Pediatrics 2010;126:546-555.