Copyright backlash

Southern California Law Review

Volumn 84, Issue 6, 2011, Pages 1251-1292

  Depoorter, Ben ^a   Van Hiel, Alain ^b   Vanneste, Sven ^c  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^b GHENT UNIVERSITY   (Belgium)

^c UNIVERSITY OF ANTWERP   (Belgium)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84859245164     PISSN: 00383910     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (155)

1. JESSICA LITMAN, DIGITAL COPYRIGHT 111 (2001) (reviewing the various challenges presented by new technology).
2. John Boudreau, Illegal File Sharing Showing No Letup, SEATTLE TIMES, July 3, 2006, available at http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/businesstechnology/ 2003101281-btfilesharing03 .html.
3. John Borland, Open-Source P2P Projects Keep Swapping, CNET NEWS (July 15, 2005), http://news.cnet.com/2100-1032-3-5789087.html;
4. Simon Crerar, Illegal File-Sharing As Popular As Ever, TIMES (London), Jan. 19, 2006, available at http://entertainment.timesonline.co.uk/tol/arts-and- entertainment/music/article715426.ece. After the outcomes in Napster and Grokster, file-sharing activities relocated to various BitTorrent sites.
5. Ernesto, Filesharing Report Shows Explosive Growth for uTorrent, TORRENTFREAK (Apr. 26, 2008), http://torrentfreak.com/p2p-statistics-080426 (reporting that the number of uTorrent users worldwide more than doubled in 2008 compared to 2009).
6. Robert Siciliano, P2P File Sharing on College Campuses, MCAFEE BLOG CENT. (Sept. 25, 2010, 3:46 PM), http://blogs.mcafee.com/consumer/identity-theft/p2p- file-sharing-on-college-campuses (describing inadvertent instances of file sharing);
7. Kate Holton, U.S. Single Digital Music Sales Flat This Year: Nielsen, REUTERS (Sept. 27, 2010, 4:07 PM), http://www.reuters.com/article/2010/09/27/us- sales-us-idUSTRE68Q2FM20100927 (discussing how digital music sales in the U.S. have stalled).
8. David Goldman, Music's Lost Decade: Sales Cut in Half, CNN MONEY (Feb. 3, 2010, 9:52 AM), http://money.cnn.com/2010/02/02/news/companies/napster-music- industry/index.htm? hpt=T2 (reporting a drop in music sales from $14.6 billion in 1999 to $6.3 billion in 2009);
9. Ethan Smith, Sales of Music, Long in Decline, Plunge Sharply, WALL ST. J., Mar. 21, 2007, available at http://online.wsj.com/public/article/ SB117444575607043728-oEugjUqEtTo1hWJawejgR3LjRAw-20080320.html?mod=rss-free.
10. Paul Lamere, What's On Your iPod?, ORACLE BLOGS (May 22, 2006), http://blogs.sun.com/plamere/entry/what-s-on-your-ipod.
11. Dan Sabbagh, Average Teenager's iPod Has 800 Illegal Music Tracks, TIMES (London), June 16, 2008, available at http://technology.timesonline.co.uk/tol/ news/tech-and-web/personal-tech/article4144585.ece.
12. A& M Records, Inc. v. Napster, Inc. (Napster I), 239 F.3d 1004, 1021-24 (9th Cir. 2001) (confirming district court finding that plaintiffs would likely be successful in establishing that Napster would be liable as a contributory and vicarious infringer).
13. Dave Itzkoff, Student Fined $675,000 in Downloading Case, N.Y. TIMES (July 31, 2009, 12:34 PM), http://artsbeat.blogs.nytimes.com/2009/07/31/ judge-rules-student-is-liable-in-music-download-case/.
14. Sony BMG Music Entm't v. Tenenbaum, 721 F. Supp. 2d 85 (D. Mass. 2010), rev?d, Nos. 10-1883, 10-1947, 10-2052, U.S. App. LEXIS 19086 (1st Cir. Sept. 16, 2011).
15. Milton J. Valencia, Court Upholds Fine in Music Download Case, BOSTON GLOBE (Sept. 20, 2011), http://www.boston.com/news/local/massachusetts/articles/ 2011/09/20/federal-appeals-court-reinstates-675k-fine-against-student-convicted- of-downloading-music/.
16. Anne Broache, RIAA Threatens 19 Universities with Lawsuits, CNET NEWS (Oct. 18, 2007, 11:16 AM), http://news.cnet.com/8301-10784-3-9799840-7.html.
17. Seth Sutel, MTV Owner Viacom Demands That YouTube Remove More Than 100,000 Unauthorized Video Clips, ASSOCIATED PRESS, Feb. 3, 2007, available at http://www.usatoday.com/tech/news/2007-02-02-viacom-youtube-x.htm.
18. How To Not Get Sued for File Sharing, ELECTRONIC FRONTIER FOUND. (July 2006), http://www.eff.org/wp/how-not-get-sued-file-sharing.
19. Capitol Records, Inc. v. Thomas-Rasset, No. 06-CV-01497 (MJD/LIB), 2009 WL 2030495 (D. Minn. June 18, 2009).
20. David Kravets, Jury in RIAA Trial Slaps $2 Million Fine on Jammie Thomas, WIRED (June 18, 2009, 6:57 PM), http://www.wired.com/threatlevel/2009/ 06/riaa-jury-slaps-2-million-fine-on-jammie-thomas;
21. David Kravets, RIAA Jury Finds Minnesota Woman Liable for Piracy, Awards $222,000, WIRED (Oct. 4, 2007, 2:34 PM), http://www.wired.com/ threatlevel/2007/10/riaa-jury-finds/.
22. On October 22, 2009, the Constitutional Council of France approved the HADOPI law or Creation and Internet Law. Loi 2009-669 du 12 juin 2009 favorisant la diffusion et la protection de la creation sur internet [Law 2009-669 of June 12, 2009 on Promoting the Dissemination and Protection of Creation on the Internet], JOURNAL OFFICIEL DE LA REPUBLIQUE FRANCAISE [J.O.] [OFFICIAL GAZETTE OF FRANCE], June 13, 2009, No. 2, (English translation available at http://www.conseil-constitutionnel.fr/conseil-constitutionnel/root/bank-mm/ anglais/2009-580dc.pdf);
23. Eric Pfanner, France Approves Wide Crackdown on Net Piracy, N.Y. TIMES, Oct. 22, 2009, available at http://www.nytimes.com/2009/10/23/technology/23net. html.
24. The United Kingdom joined the approach of web disconnection measures with the passage of the Digital Economy Act on June 8, 2010. Digital Economy Act, 2010, 59 Eliz. 2, c. 24, (U.K.). The Digital Economy Act includes provisions that limit the quality of Internet connections or that block access to a location on the Internet ?from which a substantial amount of material has been, is being or is likely to be made available in infringement of copyright,? or a location which ?facilitate[s]? such behavior.
25. Emma Barnett, MPs Pass Digital Economy Bill, TELEGRAPH (U.K.), Apr. 8, 2010, available at http://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/news/7566427/MPs-pass- Digital-Economy-Bill.html.
26. Yuval Feldman & Janice Nadler, The Law and Norms of File Sharing, 43 SAN DIEGO L. REV. 577, 584-87 (2006) (presenting evidence on the various sources of anti-copyright norms);
27. Daniel J. Gervais, The Price of Social Norms: Towards a Liability Regime for File-Sharing, 12 J. INTELL. PROP. L. 39, 48-53 (2004);
28. Lior Jacob Strahilevitz, Charismatic Code, Social Norms, and the Emergence of Cooperation on the File-Swapping Networks, 89 VA. L. REV. 505, 534-47 (2003) (describing norms in file-sharing communities).
29. Dan M. Kahan, Gentle Nudges vs. Hard Shoves: Solving the Sticky Norms Problem, 67 U. CHI. L. REV. 607 (2000) (suggesting that gradual approaches are more effective when anti-legal norms are in place);
30. Francesco Parisi & Georg von Wangenheim, Legislation and Countervailing Effects from Social Norms (George Mason Univ. Sch. of Law, Law and Economics Working Paper Series No. 04-31, 2004), available at http://www.gmu.edu/departments/law/faculty/papers/docs/04-31.pdf (describing a cycle of opinion formation in which public acts of disobedience and protest undermine the legitimacy of legislation, which leads to further opposition).
31. William J. Stuntz, Self-Defeating Crimes, 86 VA. L. REV. 1871, 1872 (2000) (suggesting that misguided enforcement priorities can inadvertently shift public support away from the underlying laws).
32. A& M Records, Inc. v. Napster, Inc. (Napster I), 239 F.3d 1004, 1022 (9th Cir. 2001).
33. Kristina Groennings, Costs and Benefits of the Recording Industry's Litigation Against Individuals, 20 BERKELEY TECH. L.J. 571, 573 (2005) (?The [recording] industry's victory in Napster was fleeting as publicity over the issue increased awareness of P2P technology and users flocked to decentralized networks like Grokster and KaZaa, making the tracking of P2P use more difficult.?) (footnote omitted).
34. MGM Studios, Inc. v. Grokster, Ltd. (Grokster I), 259 F. Supp. 2d 1029, 1037 (C.D. Cal. 2003) (citing Napster I, 239 F.3d at 1020-22), aff?d, MGM Studios, Inc. v. Grokster, Ltd. (Grokster II), 380 F.3d 1154 (9th Cir. 2004).
35. MGM Studios, Inc. v. Grokster, Ltd. (Grokster III), 545 U.S. 913, 940-41 (2005).
36. Kalem Co. v. Harper Bros., 222 U.S. 55, 62-63 (1911);
37. Thomson-Houston Elec. Co. v. Kelsey Elec. Ry. Specialty Co., 75 F. 1005, 1007-08 (2d Cir. 1896);
38. Rumford Chem. Works v. Hecker, 20 F. Cas. 1342, 1346 (C.C.D.N.J. 1876) (No. 12,133)).
39. This average gradually increased to $3000. Paul Roberts, RIAA Sues 532 John Does,? PCWORLD (Jan. 21, 2004, 1:00 PM), available at http://www.pcworld.com/article/114387/riaa-sues-532-john-does.html.
40. RIAA Launches Second Wave of File-Swapper Suits, OUT-LAW NEWS (Oct. 31, 2003), http://www.out-law.com/page-4029.
41. File Sharing Goes to High Court, WIRED (Dec. 10, 2004), http://www.wired.com/entertainment/music/news/2004/12/65995.
42. Grant Gross, MPAA to Sue Movie File Swappers, PCWORLD (Nov. 4, 2004, 4:00 PM), http://www.pcworld.com/article/118485/mpaa-to-sue-movie-file-swappers. html.
43. Hollywood Sues Alleged File Swappers, MSNBC.COM (Nov. 16, 2004, 8:34 PM), http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/6504024/ns/technology-and-science-tech-and-gadgets/ t/hollywood-sues-alleged-file-swappers/.
44. Thomas Mennecke, Movie Studios vs. Internet Movie Thieves, Round Six!, SLYCK NEWS (Aug. 2, 2005), http://www.slyck.com/story877-Movie-Studios-Vs- Internet-Movie-Thieves-Round-Six.
45. Andrei Toma, USCG Making the RIAA Look Soft, CYBERBEAR (Nov. 24, 2010), http://cyberbeartracks.com/?p=95 (?The campaign ended just last year, with over 18,000 law suits.?).
46. Press Release, RIAA, 23 New Schools to Receive Latest Round of RIAA Pre-Lawsuit Letters (July 18, 2007), http://www.riaa.com/newsitem.php?id= 780E8751-0E03-4258-D651-F991B66E1708.
47. Nick Semenkovich, RIAA Pre-Litigation Letters Sent to MIT, TECH, May 8, 2007, at 1.
48. Capitol Records, Inc. v. Thomas, 579 F. Supp. 2d 1210, 1218-19 (D. Minn. 2008) (holding that liability for violation of the exclusive right of distribution requires actual dissemination). The Capitol Records court cited Hotaling v. Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints, 118 F.3d 199, 203 (4th Cir. 1997) (holding that when a library makes a work available to the public it has completed all the steps necessary for distribution), but the court declined to follow it.
49. Capitol Records, 579 F. Supp. 2d at 1221.
50. Felix Oberholzer-Gee & Koleman Strumpf, The Effect of File Sharing on Record Sales: An Empirical Analysis, 115 J. POL. ECON. 1, 3 (2007);
51. Andy McCue, Study: Falling CD Sales Can?t Be Blamed on P2P, CNET NEWS (June 14, 2005, 11:40 AM), http://news.cnet.com/2100-1027-3-5746291.html (discussing a study finding that file sharing has no negative impact on CD sales).
52. Stan J. Liebowitz, File Sharing: Creative Destruction or Just Plain Destruction?, 49 J.L. & ECON. 1, 14-17 (2006) [hereinafter Liebowitz, Creative Destruction] (presenting evidence that file sharing diminishes recording industry revenues);
53. Rafael Rob & Joel Waldfogel, Piracy on the High C's: Music Downloading, Sales Displacement, and Social Welfare in a Sample of College Students, 49 J.L. & ECON. 29, 30 (2006) (showing data indicating that downloading reduced purchases by individuals in their sample by about 10 percent during 2003).
54. J. Liebowitz, Economists Examine File Sharing and Music Sales, in INDUSTRIAL ORGANIZATION AND THE DIGITAL ECONOMY 145 (Gerhard Illing & Martin Peitz eds., 2006) (providing an overview of the empirical work that supports the position that file sharing hurts copyright owners).
55. Tim Wu, When Code Isn?t Law, 89 VA. L. REV. 679, 745-50 (2003).
56. Stephanie Berg, Remedying the Statutory Damages Remedy for Secondary Copyright Infringement Liability: Balancing Copyright and Innovation in the Digital Age, 56 J. COPYRIGHT SOC'Y U.S.A. 265, 273-74 (2009).
57. Pamela Samuelson & Tara Wheatland, Statutory Damages in Copyright Law: A Remedy in Need of Reform, 51 WM. & MARY L. REV. 439, 451-63 (2009). According to Pamela Samuelson and Tara Wheatland, however, Congress did not limit anything and only exacerbated its own unease. Id. at 453-54. In pertinent part, Samuelson and Wheatland argue that the 1976 Act has not had the desired impact Congress anticipated, as evidenced by the latest statutory damage awards in peer-to-peer file sharing cases. Id.
58. Kate Cross, Note, David v. Goliath: How the Record Industry is Winning Substantial Judgments Against Individuals for Illegally Downloading Music, 42 TEX. TECH L. REV. 1031, 1041-42 (2010) (discussing whether excessive punitive damages jurisprudence should be applied to statutory damages cases in which defendants have received disproportionately high, and arguably punitive-like, statutory damages judgments against them). It has also been suggested that courts should apply the modern punitive damages test set forth in BMW of N. Am., Inc. v. Gore, 517 U.S. 559 (1996), to copyright cases that involve grossly disproportionate statutory judgments against individual infringers. ?If one song on iTunes costs ninety-nine cents to purchase, then a judgment awarding $80,000 for one song is not only grossly disproportionate but =obviously unreasonable by any measure.'?.
59. A& M Records, Inc. v. Napster, Inc. (Napster I), 239 F.3d 1004, 1021 (9th Cir. 2001);
60. MGM Studios, Inc. v. Grokster, Ltd. (Grokster I), 259 F. Supp. 2d 1029, 1037 (C.D. Cal. 2003).
61. Assaf Hamdani & Alon Klement, The Class Defense, 93 CALIF. L. REV. 685, 688 (2005) (advocating a procedure of claim consolidation among similarly positioned defendants);
62. David W. Opderbeck, Peer-to-Peer Networks, Technological Evolution, and Intellectual Property Reverse Private Attorney General Litigation, 20 BERKELEY TECH. L.J. 1685, 1696 (2005) (coining the phrase ?reverse private attorney general litigation? to refer to aggregated claims initiated by well-resourced plaintiffs against multiple individual defendants).
63. David Kravets, File Sharing Lawsuits at a Crossroads, After 5 Years of RIAA Litigation, WIRED (Sept. 4, 2008, 2:55 PM), http://www.wired. com/threatlevel/2008/09/proving-file-sh/(quoting Electronic Frontier Foundation attorney Fred von Lohmann's evaluation of the litigation campaign: ?If the goal is to reduce file sharing, . . . it's a failure.?).
64. Larry Dignan, Why RIAA, ISP Cooperation May Deliver Returns for Both Sides, ZDNET (Jan. 29, 2009, 3:33 AM), http://www.zdnet.com/blog/btl/why-riaa- isp-cooperation-may-deliver-returns-for-both-sides/11893;
65. Greg Sandoval, Comcast, Cox Cooperating with RIAA in Antipiracy Campaign, CNET NEWS (Mar. 25, 2009, 9:49 AM), http://news.cnet.com/8301-1023-3-10204047- 93.html.
66. Greg Sandoval, RIAA Gives Thumbs Up to France's Three-Strike Law, CNET NEWS, (Apr. 8, 2009, 1:58 PM), http://news.cnet.com/8301-1023-3-10215602-93.html
67. Jane C. Ginsburg, Putting Cars on the "Information Superhighway": Authors, Exploiters, and Copyright in Cyberspace, 95 COLUM. L. REV. 1466, 1488 (1995) (?Copyright owners have traditionally avoided targeting end users of copyrighted works.?);
68. Fonovisa, Inc. v. Cherry Auction, Inc., (9th Cir.) (holding that contributory liability could be imposed on defendant who operated a swap meet where many of the vendors sold counterfeit goods);
69. Fonovisa, Inc. v. Cherry Auction, Inc., 76 F.3d 259, 264 (9th Cir. 1996) (holding that contributory liability could be imposed on defendant who operated a swap meet where many of the vendors sold counterfeit goods);
70. John Borland, RIAA Settles with 12-Year-Old Girl, CNET NEWS (Sept. 9, 2003, 4:05 PM), http://news.com.com/2102-1027-3-5073717.html?tag=st.util.print.
71. Andrew Orlowski, RIAA Sues the Dead, REGISTER (U.K.) (Feb. 5, 2005, 2:30 AM), http://www.theregister.co.uk/2005/02/05/riaa-sues-the-dead/.
72. Nate Anderson, The "Legal Blackmail" Business: Inside a P2P-Settlement Factory, WIRED (Oct. 3, 2010, 10:30 AM), http://www.wired.com/ epicenter/2010/10/the-legal-blackmail-business/;
73. Eric Bangeman, RIAA "Exortion": Why the Only RICO They Fear Is Suave, ARS TECHNICA (May 7, 2007, 12:41 AM), http://arstechnica.com/tech-policy/ news/2007/05/riaa-extortion-why-the-only-rico-they-fear-is-suave.ars;
74. Corynne McSherry, Sensible Data Retention Policies Help Prevent RIAA Harassment, ELECTRONIC FRONTIER FOUND. (Mar. 28, 2007), https://www.eff.org/ deeplinks/2007/03/sensible-data-retention-policies-help-prevent-riaa-harassment;
75. The Anti-Anti-Piracy Campaign: CEA Tells RIAA To Stop Harassing People, QUICKJUMP GAMING NETWORK (Apr. 27, 2006, 7:51 PM), http://www.qj.net/qjnet/ apple/the-anti-anti-piracy-campaign-cea-tells-riaa-to-stop-harassing-people. html.
76. Capitol Records Inc. v. Thomas, 579 F. Supp. 2d 1210, 1213 (D. Minn. 2008). The court eventually reduced the award on remand stating that ?[t]he need for deterrence cannot justify a $2 million verdict for stealing and illegally distributing 24 songs for the sole purpose of obtaining free music. Moreover, although Plaintiffs were not required to prove their actual damages, statutory damages must still bear some relation to actual damages.?
77. Capitol Records Inc. v. Thomas-Rasset, 680 F. Supp. 2d. 1045, 1048-49 (D. Minn. 2010).
78. Denise Lavoie, Jury Awards $675K in Boston Music Downloading Case, ASSOCIATED PRESS, July 31, 2009, available at http://www.msnbc. msn.com/id/32236444/ns/technology-and-science-security/t/jury-awards-k-music- downloading-case/.
79. Pamela Samuelson & Ben Sheffner, Debate, Unconstitutionally Excessive Statutory Damage Awards in Copyright Cases, 158 U. PA. L. REV. PENNUMBRA 53 (2009), http://www.pennumbra.com/debates/pdfs/CopyrightDamages.pdf (a debate discussing whether large statutory damage awards are constitutional);
80. J. Cam Barker, Note, Grossly Excessive Penalties in the Battle Against Illegal File-Sharing: The Troubling Effects of Aggregating Minimum Statutory Damages for Copyright Infringement, 83 TEX. L. REV. 525, 526 (2004).
81. Colin Morrissey, Note, Behind the Music: Determining the Relevant Constitutional Standard for Statutory Damages in Copyright Infringement Lawsuits, 78 FORDHAM L. REV. 3059 (2010) (arguing in favor of due process evaluation of statutory damages).
82. Anna Cronk, Note, The Punishment Doesn?t Fit the Crime-Why and How Congress Should Revise the Statutory Copyright Damages Provision for Noncommercial Infringements on Peer-to-Peer File-Sharing Networks, 39 SW. L. REV. 181, 195-98 (2009).
83. Daniel Reynolds, Note, The RIAA Litigation War on File Sharing and Alternatives More Compatible with Public Morality, 9 MINN. J.L. SCI. & TECH. 977, 978-87 (2008).
84. Show Your Support, JOEL FIGHTS BACK, http://joelfightsback.com/get- involved/donate/(last visited Sept. 6, 2011) (taking donations for Joel Tenenbaum, the defendant in Sony BMG Music Entertainment v. Tenenbaum).
85. Richard H. McAdams, The Origin, Development, and Regulation of Norms, 96 MICH. L. REV. 338 (1997). Where necessary, we will distinguish between personal norms (moral standards attributed to an individual) and social norms (standards attributed to a group or collective).
86. Michael Wenzel, An Analysis of Norm Processes in Tax Compliance, 25 J. ECON. PSYCHOL. 213, 213-15 (2004). As we will see, however, the distinction between both categories loses some relevance because (1) generally, social norms are often internalized, and (2) in our results, perhaps through a self-serving bias, the social norm evaluation of respondents correlates with personal norms. Differences between personal and social norms, however, are highly relevant to policy recommendations. There is existing literature that provides insightful theoretical and empirical insights into the origins of social norms.
87. Raymond Shih Ray Ku, The Creative Destruction of Copyright: Napster and the New Economics of Digital Technology, 69 U. CHI. L. REV. 263, 268 (2003).
88. Steven Hanway & Linda Lyons, Teens OK With Letting Music Downloads Play, GALLUP POLL, Sept. 30, 2003, available at http://www.gallup.com/poll/9373/ teens-letting-music-downloads-play.aspx (reporting that 83 percent of teenagers in the age group of thirteen to seventeen find nothing wrong with file sharing).
89. Memorandum from KRC Research to Interested Parties, Topline Results of Microsoft Survey of Teen Attitudes on Illegal Downloading 2 (Jan. 23, 2008), available at http://www.microsoft.com/presspass/download/press/2008/02- 13KRCStudy.pdf.
90. George J. Stigler, The Optimum Enforcement of Laws, 78 J. POL. ECON. 526 (1970) (constructing a theory of rational enforcement).
91. RICHARD A. POSNER, ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF LAW (5th ed. 1998) (explaining fundamental concepts of the economic approach to law).
92. Michael Wenzel, Motivation or Rationalisation? Causal Relations Between Ethics, Norms and Tax Compliance, 26 J. ECON. PSYCHOL. 491, 492 (2005)
93. TOM R. TYLER, WHY PEOPLE OBEY THE LAW (1990);
94. Simon James et al., Developing a Tax Compliance Strategy for Revenue Services, 55 BULL. FOR INT'L FISCAL DOCUMENTATION 158 (2001)).
95. John S. Carroll, Compliance with the Law: A Decision-Making Approach to Taxpaying, 11 LAW & HUM. BEHAV. 319 (1987) (applying decisionmaking models to tax law);
96. Tracey L. Meares, Signaling, Legitimacy, and Compliance: A Comment on Posner's Law and Social Norms and Criminal Law Policy, 36 U. RICH. L. REV. 407, 410 & nn.27-28 (2002).
97. Paul H. Robinson, Why Does the Criminal Law Care What the Layperson Thinks is Just? Coercive Versus Normative Crime Control, 86 VA. L. REV. 1839, 1841 (2000).
98. James Alm, Gary H. McClelland & William D. Schulze, Changing the Social Norm of Tax Compliance by Voting, 52 KYKLOS 141, 141, 163 (1999);
99. Ana de Juan, Miguel A. Lasheras & Rafaela Mayo, Voluntary Tax Complaint Behavior of Spanish Income Tax Payers, 49 PUB. FIN. 90, 90 (1994);
100. Michael Wenzel, The Social Side of Sanctions: Personal and Social Norms as Moderators of Deterrence, 28 LAW & HUM. BEHAV. 547, 549-50 (2004).
101. Leandra Lederman, The Interplay Between Norms and Enforcement in Tax Compliance, 64 OHIO ST. L.J. 1453 (2003).
102. Dan M. Kahan, Social Meaning and the Economic Analysis of Crime, 27 J. LEGAL STUD. 609 (1998);
103. Timur Kuran & Cass R. Sunstein, Availability Cascades and Risk Regulation, 51 STAN. L. REV. 683, 715-36 (1999);
104. Tracey L. Meares & Dan M. Kahan, Law and (Norms of) Order in the Inner City, 32 LAW & SOC'Y REV. 805, 816-30 (1998).
105. John S. Carroll, A Psychological Approach to Deterrence: The Evaluation of Crime Opportunities, 36 J. PERSONALITY & SOC. PSYCHOL. 1512, 1520 (1978);
106. Harold G. Grasmick & Donald E. Green, Legal Punishment, Social Disapproval and Internalization as Inhibitors of Illegal Behavior, 17 J. CRIM. L. & CRIMINOLOGY 325, 330-35 (1980);
107. Kent W. Smith, Integrating Three Perspectives on Noncompliance: A Sequential Decision Model, 17 CRIM. JUST. & BEHAV. 350, 366-67 (1990). See
108. KENNETH ALLSOP, THE BOOTLEGGERS: THE STORY OF CHICAGO'S PROHIBITION ERA (1968) (describing causes of success and failure in the enforcement campaign on bootlegging);
109. ANDREW SINCLAIR, PROHIBITION: THE ERA OF EXCESS (1962) (tracking the social history of the prohibition movement);
110. Joseph R. Gusfield, Prohibition: The Impact of Political Utopianism, in CHANGE AND CONTINUITY IN TWENTIETH-CENTURY AMERICA: THE 1920'S 257 (John Braeman, Robert H. Bremner & David Brody eds., 1968) (following the impact of the Prohibition movement in the United States).
111. LARRY ENGELMANN, INTEMPERANCE: THE LOST WAR AGAINST LIQUOR 177-87 (1979);
112. Harry G. Levine & Craig Reinarman, From Prohibition to Regulation: Lessons from Alcohol Policy for Drug Policy, 69 MILBANK Q. 461, 466-69 (1991).
113. David Rudovsky, The Impact of the War on Drugs on Procedural Fairness and Racial Equality, 1994 U. CHI. LEGAL F. 237, 237 (1994) (discussing the negative impact of drug war policies on constitutional norms and racial equality).
114. JAMES P. GRAY, WHY OUR DRUG LAWS HAVE FAILED AND WHAT WE CAN DO ABOUT IT: A JUDICIAL INDICTMENT OF THE WAR ON DRUGS (2001) (discussing the United States' missteps in addressing the country's drug problem);
115. STEVEN WISOTSKY, BEYOND THE WAR ON DRUGS: OVERCOMING A FAILED PUBLIC POLICY (1990) (following the United States's failure to effectively regulate the cocaine drug trade).
116. See A. Mitchell Polinsky & Steven Shavell, Economic Analysis of Law, in THE NEW PALGRAVE DICTIONARY OF ECONOMICS 7 (Steven N. Durlauf & Lawrence E. Blume eds., 2008).
117. Robert Cooter, Expressive Law and Economics, 27 J. LEGAL STUD. 585, 585 (1998).
118. See also GARY S. BECKER, ACCOUNTING FOR TASTES 1-2 (1996).
119. A Focal Point Theory of Expressive Law, 86 VA. L. REV. 1649 (2000).
120. On the internalization of social norms, see Robert Cooter, Do Good Laws Make Good Citizens? An Economic Analysis of Internalized Norms, 86 VA. L. REV. 1577, 1597-1600 (2000) [hereinafter Cooter, Good Citizens];
121. Robert D. Cooter, Three Effects of Social Norms on Law: Expression, Deterrence, and Internalization, 79 OR. L. REV. 1, 17-20 (2000) [hereinafter Cooter, Three Effects].
122. Liebowitz, Creative Destruction
123. Colin F. Camerer, & Ernst Fehr, Measuring Social Norms and Preferences Using Experimental Games: A Guide for Social Scientists, in FOUNDATIONS OF HUMAN SOCIALITY 55 (Joseph Henrich et al. eds. 2004).
124. See Lee J. Cronbach, Coefficient Alpha and the Internal Structure of Tests, 16 PSYCHOMETRIKA 297 (1951).
125. See, e.g., David De Cremer & Daan Van Knippenberg, How Do Leaders Promote Cooperation? The Effects of Charisma and Procedural Fairness, 87 J. APPLIED PSYCHOL. 858 (2002).
126. See Robert L. Dipboye, Laboratory vs. Field Research in Industrial and Organizational Psychology, 5 INT'L. REV. INDUS. & ORG'L PSYCHOL. 1, 25 (1990) (discussing the legitimacy of laboratory research studies).
127. Katie Dean, Are You in RIAA's Cross Hairs?, WIRED (June 26, 2003), http://www.wired.com/entertainment/music/news/2003/06/59392.
128. Music Labels Hunt Net 'Pirates,' BBC NEWS (June 26, 2003), http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/entertainment/3021126.stm (describing the RIAA's targeting of peer-to-peer software users, including ?four college students [who] agreed to pay damages after being sued by the RIAA?).
129. Joshua D. Rosenberg, The Psychology of Taxes: Why They Drive us Crazy, and How We Can Make Them Sane, 16 VA. TAX REV. 155, 201 n.213 (1996) (describing how individuals reconcile the conflict between normative positions and legal regulation).
130. See Daniel S. Nagin & Greg Porgarsky, An Experimental Investigation of Deterrence: Cheating, Self-Serving Bias, and Impulsivity, 41 CRIMINOLOGY 167 (2003) (presenting experimental evidence consistent with a self-serving bias).
131. AESOP, The Fox and the Grapes, in AESOP'S FABLES 15 (Heidi Holder ill., 1981).
132. See generally Brian Mullen et al., The False Consensus Effect: A Meta-Analysis of 115 Hypothesis Tests, 21 J. EXPERIMENTAL SOC. PSYCHOL. 262 (1985) (discussing 115 studies that demonstrate the false consensus effect).
133. See also Lee Ross, David Greene & Pamela House, The "False Consensus Effect": An Egocentric Bias In Social Perception and Attribution Processes, 13 J. EXPERIMENTAL SOC. PSYCHOL. 279, 280 (1977).
134. HENRI TAJFEL, Social Identity and Social Comparison, in DIFFERENTIATION BETWEEN SOCIAL GROUPS: STUDIES IN THE SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY OF INTERGROUP RELATIONS 61-76 (1978) (describing the power of collective psychological processes through group identification).
135. See, e.g., Dan M. Kahan, Social Influence, Social Meaning, and Deterrence, 83 VA. L. REV. 349, 350 (1997);
136. Lawrence Lessig, Social Meaning and Social Norms, 144 U. PA. L. REV. 2181, 2184-85 (1996);
137. PAUL WATZLAWICK, JOHN H. WEAKLAND & RICHARD FISCH, CHANGE: PRINCIPLES OF PROBLEM FORMATION AND PROBLEM RESOLUTION 92-109 (1974) (collecting existing studies); Amos Tversky & Daniel Kahneman, The Framing of Decisions and the Psychology of Choice, 211 SCI. 453 (1981).
138. See Robert J. Akerlof, A Theory of Social Motivation (MIT Working Paper No. 35, 2008), available at http://mit.academia.edu/RobertAkerlof/Papers/96712/ A-Theory-of-Social-Motivation (describing social norm formation processes of groups and subcultures).
139. See Joseph R. Gusfield, Moral Passage: The Symbolic Process in Public Designations of Deviance, 15 SOC. PROBS. 175, 175-76 (1967).
140. Ben Depoorter, The Several Lives of Mickey Mouse: The Expanding Boundaries of Intellectual Property Law, 9 VA. J.L. & TECH. 4, 67 (2004) .
141. Ben Depoorter, Technology and Uncertainty: The Shaping Effect on Copyright Law, 157 U. PA. L. REV. 1831 (2009) .
142. See Linda Babcock & George Loewenstein, Explaining Bargaining Impasse: The Role Of Self-Serving Biases, 11 J. ECON. PERSPECTIVES 109, 111-16 (1997)
143. See generally Dan M. Kahan & Donald Braman, More Statistics, Less Persuasion: A Cultural Theory of Gun-Risk Perceptions, 151 U. PA. L. REV. 1291 (2003).
144. see Cooter, Good Citizens?
145. Cooter, Three Effects
146. See Geoffery Neri, Note, Sticky Fingers or Sticky Norms? Unauthorized Music Downloading and Unsettled Social Norms, 93 GEO. L.J. 733, 757-58 (2003).
147. Werner Z. Hirsch, Reducing Law?s Uncertainty and Complexity, 21 UCLA L. REV. 1233, 1247 n.28 (1974).
148. See Daniel Kahneman, Jack L. Knetsch & Richard H. Thaler, Experimental Tests of the Endowment Effect and the Coase Theorem, 98 J. POL. ECON. 1325, 1326 (1990);
149. George Loewenstein & Samuel Issacharoff, Source Dependence in the Valuation of Objects, 7 J. BEHAV. DECISION MAKING 157, 165 (1994).
150. See, e.g., Jeffrey J. Rachlinski, The Limits of Social Norms, 74 CHI.-KENT L. REV. 1537 (2000);
151. Jeffrey J. Rachlinski, The "New" Law and Psychology: A Reply to Critics, Skeptics, and Cautious Supporters, 85 CORNELL L. REV. 739 (2000).
152. See, e.g., JAMES BOYLE, THE PUBLIC DOMAIN: ENCLOSING THE COMMONS OF THE MIND 179-204 (2008);
153. See, e.g., Ian McPherson, Copyright Becomes a Tool of the Cartels, NETNACS, Oct. 2002 (on file with author);
154. John Naughton, Mickey Mouse Threatens to Block All Ideas in Future, OBSERVER, Feb. 24, 2002, available at http://www.guardian.co.uk/technology/2002/ feb/24/business.columnists.
155. see generally Jessica D. Litman, Copyright Legislation and Technological Change, 68 OR. L. Rev. 275 (1989) .