From rapid reaction to delayed inaction? Congo, the UN and the EU

International Peacekeeping

Volumn 18, Issue 5, 2011, Pages 593-611

  Gowan, Richard ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84859093942     PISSN: 13533312     EISSN: 1743906X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/13533312.2011.598324     Document Type: Article

References (86)

1. Center on International Cooperation, Annual Review of Global Peace Operations 2009, Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 2009, pp.51-53.
2. 'EU Split on UN Call for Congo Bridging Mission', Reuters-AlertNet, 8 Dec. 2008 (at: www.reliefweb.int/rw/rwb.nsf/db900sid/KSAI-7M63JZ?OpenDocument&query=ban%20ki-moon).
3. Toby Vogel, 'Why Europe Is Split over Troops for Congo', European Voice, 11 Dec. 2008 (at: www.europeanvoice.com/article/imported/why-europe-is-split-over-troops-for-congo/63357.aspx).
4. For an overview of literature on EU-UN cooperation.
5. Maria Raquel Freire, Paula Duarte Lopes, Fernando Cavalcante, Markus Gauster, Livia Fay Lucianetti, Pascoal Santos Pereira, Valtteri Vuorisalo and Rafaela Rodrigues de Brito, Mapping Research on European Peace Missions, The Hague: Clingendael, 2010, pp.22-25.
6. Claudia Morsut, 'Effective Multilateralism? EU-UN Cooperation in the DRC, 2003-2006', International Peacekeeping, Vol.16, No.2, 2009, pp.261-272.
7. John P.D. Dunbabin, 'The Security Council in the Wings: Exploring the Security Council's Noninvolvement in Wars', in Vaughan Lowe, Adam Roberts, Jennifer Welsh, and Dominik Zaum (eds), The United Nations Security Council and War, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008, p.511.
8. John P.D. Dunbabin, 'The Security Council in the Wings: Exploring the Security Council's Noninvolvement in Wars', in Vaughan Lowe, Adam Roberts, Jennifer Welsh, and Dominik Zaum (eds), The United Nations Security Council and War, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008, pp.512-514.
9. Daniel Korski and Richard Gowan, Can the EU Fix Failed States? A Review of Europe's Civilian Capacities, London: European Council on Foreign Relations, 2009, pp.27-29.
10. Malte Brosig, 'The Multi-actor Game of Peacekeeping in Africa', International Peacekeeping, Vol.17, No.3, p.338.
11. UN Security Council, 6075th meeting, UN doc., S/PV.6075, 23 Jan. 2009, p.2 (at: http://daccessods.un.org/TMP/1489881.htm).
12. UN Security Council, 6075th meeting, UN doc., S/PV.6075, 23 Jan. 2009., at: http://daccessods.un.org/TMP/1489881.htm pp.3-4.
13. DPKO and DFS, 'A New Partnership Agenda: Charting a New Horizon for UN Peacekeeping', New York, 2009 at: www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/documents/newhorizon.pdf.
14. Bruce Jones, Jake Sherman and Richard Gowan, 'Building on Brahimi: Peacekeeping in an Era of Strategic Uncertainty', report, Center on International Cooperation, New York University, April 2009, p.2 at: www.cic.nyu.edu/peacekeeping/docs/cic_brahimi_report.pdf.
15. Cedric de Coning, Andreas Øien Stensland, and Thierry Tardy, 'Beyond the New Horizon: A Seminar on the Future Challenges of UN Peacekeeping', in Cedric de Coning, Andreas Øien Stensland and Thierry Tardy (eds), 'Beyond the New Horizon', seminar report, Norwegian Institute of International Affairs and Geneva Centre for Security Policy, 2010, p.12.
16. DPKO and DFS, (see n.12 above), p.34.
17. DPKO and DFS, (see n.12 above)., p.24.
18. Andrew Willis, 'Sudanese Consider "EU Model" as Solution to Oil Question', EUObserver, 17 Jan. 2011 (at: http://euobserver.com/9/31650).
19. Andrew Willis, 'Sudanese Consider "EU Model" as Solution to Oil Question', EUObserver, 17 Jan. 2011 (at: http://euobserver.com/9/31650).
20. Author's conversation with EU official, 30 June 2009.
21. This paragraph closely follows Center on International Cooperation (see n.1 above), p.52. The author thanks Erin Weir for her research for the Annual Review of Global Peace Operations in the DRC in 2008.
22. 'Congo City Panics as Rebels Near', BBC News, 19 Oct. 2008 (at: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/7697577.stm).
23. 'DR Congo Edging towards "Humanitarian Catastophe"', ABC News, 30 Oct. 2008 (at: www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2008/10/30/2406148.htm).
24. 'UK Troops "Will Not Go To Congo"', BBC News, 1 Nov. 2008 (at: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/politics/7703765.stm).
25. Communication between a UN official and the Center on International Cooperation, 26 Feb. 2009.
26. Jane Merrick, 'British Troops May Be Sent to Back up UN in Congo', The Independent (London), 2 Nov. 2008 (at: www.independent.co.uk/news/world/politics/brigootish-troops-may-be-sentto-back-up-un-in-congo-984636.html).
27. Michael Evans and Catherine Philp, 'British Troops May Join Aid Convoys in Congo Refugee Chaos', The Times (London), 3 Nov. 2008 (at: www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/africa/article5068609.ece).
28. Brian Rohan, 'France Says EU to Hold Meeting on Congo Force', Reuters, 30 Oct. 2008 (at: http://uk.reuters.com/article/idUKTRE49T6RI20081030).
29. International Crisis Group, 'Congo: Five Priorities for a Peacebuilding Strategy', Africa Report 150, 11 May 2009, p.6.
30. Bernard Kouchner and Javier Solana (excerpts), 30 Nov. 2008 (at: www.ambafrance-uk.org/Bernard-Kouchner-on-Congo.html).
31. The best introduction to the battle groups is Gustav Lindstrom, 'Enter the EU Battlegroups', Chaillot Paper 97, EU Institute for Security Studies, Paris, Feb. 2007.
32. Author's conversations with UK officials, Nov. 2009.
33. 'EU Rules out Congo Troop Deployment Despite Crisis', Deutsche Welle (Frankfurt), 31 Oct. 2008 (at: www.dw-world.de/dw/article/0,3754459,00.html).
34. Xavier Zeebroek, 'Belgian Expertise in "the Congo": A Paradox', in Jan Wouters, Edith Drieskins and Seven Biscop (eds), Belgium in the Security Council: Reflections on the 2007-2008 Membership, Antwerp: Internsentia, 2009, pp.96-97.
35. Hylke Dijkstra, 'The Military Operation of the EU and Chad in the Central African Republic: Good Policy, Bad Politics', International Peacekeeping, Vol.17 No.3, pp.395-407.
36. 'EU Refuse to Rule out Military Option in Congo Crisis', Deutsche Welle, 3 Nov. 2008 (at: www.dw-world.de/dw/article/0,3762373,00.html)
37. 'France Urges UN Peacekeepers to Get Tough', Reuters, 3 Nov. 2008 (at: www.reuters.com/article/idUSTRE4A244N20081103)
38. 'Oxfam: Nations Failing on Congo Crisis', CNN World, 13 Nov. 2008 (at: http://articles.cnn.com/2008-11-13/world/congo.fighting_1_kibati-choleracases-congolese-tutsis/2?_s=PM:WORLD).
39. Rory Keane, 'EU Battle Group Must be Deployed to Conflict in Congo', The Irish Times (Dublin), 1 Nov. 2008 (at: www.irishtimes.com/newspaper/opinion/2008/1101/1225321621725.html).
40. 'Former Presidents, Prime Ministers, Diplomats andMilitary Commanders Demand EU Force for Congo', Oxfam, 27 Nov. 2008 (at: www.oxfam.org.uk/applications/blogs/pressoffice/2008/11/27/former-presidents-prime-ministers-diplomats-and-military-commanders-demand-eu-force-for-congo/?author=3?v=newsblog).
41. Protect DRC Coalition, 'New Coalition: UK Must Back EU Peacekeepers for Congo', 21 Nov. 2008 (at: http://protectdrc.org/docs/media-release-uk-government-must-back-eu-peacekeepersfor-congo.pdf).
42. Interview with UN official, 13 Jan. 2011.
43. Rod Nordland, 'The Peacemaker: Something Has to Be Done - by the Leaders of the Congo, the Great Lakes Region and the International Community', Newsweek, 22 Nov. 2008 (at: www.newsweek.com/2008/11/21/the-peacemaker.html).
44. Author's conversation with EU official, 30 June 2009.
45. See Security Council res. 1843 (2008).
46. 'Britain, France Push for More UN Troops in Congo', CNN, 20 Nov. 2008 (at: www.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/africa/11/19/congo.un.troops/index.html).
47. 'Belgian Minister Rules out EU DR Congo Force for Now', AFP Expatica, 3 Dec. 2008 (at: www.expatica.com/be/news/belgian-news/Belgian-minister-rules-out-European-DR-Congo-mission-fornow_47772.html).
48. Toby Vogel, 'Why Europe Is Split over Troops for Congo', European Voice, 11 Dec. 2008 (at: www.europeanvoice.com/article/imported/why-europe-is-split-over-troops-for-congo/63357.aspx).
49. Toby Vogel, 'Why Europe Is Split over Troops for Congo', European Voice, 11 Dec. 2008 (at: www.europeanvoice.com/article/imported/why-europe-is-split-over-troops-for-congo/63357.aspx).
50. 'EU Split onUNCall for Congo BridgingMission', Reuters-AlertNet, 8 Dec. 2008 (at: www.reliefweb.int/rw/rwb.nsf/db900sid/KSAI-7M63JZ?OpenDocument&query=ban%20ki-moon).
51. 'Belgium Offers 400-500 Troops to EU's DR Congo Force', AFP Expatica, 11 Dec. 2008 (at: www.expatica.com/be/news/belgian-news/Belgium-offers-400_500-troops-to-EU_s-DR-Congoforce-_47969.html). The details of the Nordic positions remain confidential.
52. Brussels European Council Presidency Conclusion (revised version), EU doc.17271/06 Rev.1, 13 Feb. 2009, p.11 (at: http://register.consilium.europa.eu/pdf/en/08/st17/st17271-re01.en08.pdf).
53. Toby Vogel, 'EU Rejects UN Request for Congo Force', European Voice, 12 Dec. 2008 (at: www.europeanvoice.com/article/2008/12/eu-rejects-un-request-for-congo-force-/63419.aspx).
54. Ian Traynor and Julian Borger, 'UK Blocking European Congo Force: Miliband Rejects Calls for EU Troops to Avert Humanitarian Catastrophe', The Guardian (London), 12 Dec. 2008 (at: www.guardian.co.uk/world/2008/dec/12/congo-european-union-foreign-policy).
55. David Miliband, 'Congo: Setting the Record Straight', 15 Dec. 2008 (at: http://blogs.fco.gov.uk/roller/miliband/entry/congo_setting_the_record_straight).
56. James Traub, 'A Statesman without Borders', New York Times Magazine, 3 Feb. 2008 (at: www.nytimes.com/2008/02/03/magazine/03kouchner-t.html)
57. 'Cyclone Nargis and the Responsibility to Protect', Myanmar/ Burma briefing 2, Asia-Pacific Centre for the Responsibility to Protect, Brisbane, 16 May 2008.
58. Lina M. Svedin, Organizational Cooperation in Crises, Farnham: Ashgate, 2009, p.20.
59. Lina M. Svedin, Organizational Cooperation in Crises, Farnham: Ashgate, 2009., p.3.
60. Center on International Cooperation, (see n.1 above), p.75.
61. Giovanni Grevi, Damien Helly and Daniel Keohane (eds), ESDP: The First Ten Years (1999-2009), EU Institute for Security Studies, Paris, 2009, p.414.
62. Ståle Ulriksen, Catriona Gourlay and Catriona Mace, 'Operation Artemis: The Shape of Things to Come?', International Peacekeeping, Vol.11, No.3, 2004, pp.521-522.
63. 'EU Security and Defence Core Documents 2004', Chaillot Paper 75, EU Institute for Security Studies, Paris, Feb. 2005, pp.10ff.
64. Catherine Gégout, 'Causes and Consequences of the EU's Military Intervention in the Democratic Republic of Congo: A Realist Explanation', European Foreign Affairs Review, Vol.10, No.3, 2005, p.439.
65. 'EU-UN Cooperation in Military Crisis Management Operations: Elements of the Implementation of the EU-UN Joint Declaration', adopted by the EU Council June 2004, pp.4-5 (at: www.consilium.europa.eu/uedocs/cmsUpload/EU-UN%20co-operation%20in%20Military%20Crisis%20Management%20Operations.pdf).
66. EU-UN Cooperation in Military Crisis Management Operations: Elements of the Implementation of the EU-UN Joint Declaration', adopted by the EU Council June 2004, (at: www.consilium.europa.eu/uedocs/cmsUpload/EU-UN%20co-operation%20in%20Military%20Crisis%20Management%20Operations.pdf, p.5.
67. This paragraph draws extensively on an excellent study of the battle group concept's flaws.
68. Laura Chappell, 'Deploying the Battlegroups: Mission Impossible?', CFSP [Common Foreign and Security Policy] Forum, Vol.7, No.6, pp.7-12.
69. Tim Williams, 'Whose Finger Will Be on the Battlegroups' Trigger?', Europe's World, No.4, 2006, p.47.
70. UN doc., S/PV.6075 (see n.12 above).
71. Author's conversation with Indian peacekeeping expert, 27 Feb. 2009.
72. Examples of this cooperation have included enhanced interactions between the Council and troop-contributing countries and offering India leadership positions in the DRC and Sudan.
73. 'Sweden Calls for Rethink on EU Battle Groups', AFP/ Swedish Wire, 4 June 2009 (at: www.swedishwire.com/politics/232-sweden-calls-for-rethink-on-eu-battle-groups).
74. Chappell, (see n.62 above), p.9.
75. Valentina Pop, 'Sweden Seeks Scrutiny of EU Battle Groups', EUObserver, 8 Sep. 2009 (at: www.swedishwire.com/politics/232-sweden-calls-for-rethink-on-eu-battle-groups).
76. Caroline Henrion, 'Les Groupements Tactiques de Union' [The Union's Battle Groups], Note d'Analyse, GRIP, Brussels, 2009, pp.7-8.
77. The Helsinki Times, 'Finland's Häkämies Questions EU Battlegroups Participation', 3 Jan. 2011 (at: www.helsinkitimes.fi/htimes/domestic-news/politics/13688-finlands-haekaemies-questionseu-battlegroup-participation-yle.html).
78. Irish draft non-paper dated 18 Jan. 2010.
79. Richard Gowan, 'UN Peace Operations: The Case for Strategic Investment', Report, Center for International Peace Operations (ZIF), Berlin, 2010, p.1.
80. Extract from EU Council Conclusions on CSDP, 3009th Foreign Affairs Council Meeting, 26 Apr. 2010 (at: www.consilium.europa.eu/uedocs/cmsUpload/EU-UN_EN-27.4.2010.pdf).
81. Ian Traynor, 'Libya Conflict: EU Awaits UN Approval for Deployment of Ground Troops', The Guardian, 18 Apr. 2011 (at: www.guardian.co.uk/world/2011/apr/18/libya-conflict-eudeployment-ground-troops).
82. 'Libya: UN Warns of Blurring Aid and Military Operations', BBC, 21 Apr. 2011 (at: www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-13152392).
83. Brosig (see n.9 above), p.340.
84. Brosig (see n.9 above), p.329.
85. Since this article was completed and accepted for publication, another study of the 2008 crisis has appeared in print.
86. Ludovica Marchi Balossi-Restelli, 'Fit for What? Explaining Battlegroup Inaction', European Security, Vol.20, No.2, 2011, pp.155-184.