Near-Infrared Aerial Crop Mark Archaeology: From its Historical Use to Current Digital Implementations

Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory

Volumn 19, Issue 1, 2012, Pages 132-160

  Verhoeven, Geert Julien ^a,b  

^a GHENT UNIVERSITY   (Belgium)

^b Ludwig Boltzmann Gesellschaft GmbH Vienna   (Austria)

Author keywords

Aerial archaeology; Crop mark; Digital photography; Near infrared photography; Spectral response; Vegetation stress

Indexed keywords

EID: 84857370812     PISSN: 10725369     EISSN: 15737764     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s10816-011-9104-5     Document Type: Article

References (190)

1. Adams, M. L., Philpot, W. D., & Norvell, W. A. (1999). Yellowness index: an application of spectral second derivatives to estimate chlorosis of leaves on stressed vegetation. International Journal of Remote Sensing, 20, 3663-3675.
2. Agache, R. (1968). Essai d'utilisation aérienne et au sol d'émulsions spectrozonales, dites « infrarouges couleurs ». Bulletin de la Société Préhistorique Française, 65, 198-200.
3. Aldakheel, Y., & Danson, F. (1997). Spectral reflectance of dehydrating leaves: measurements and modelling. International Journal of Remote Sensing, 18, 3683-3690.
4. Allen, G. W. G. (1984). Discovery from the air. Aerial archaeology. The Journal for Air Photography and Archaeology, 10, 37-92.
5. Aqdus, S. A., Hanson, W. S., Drummond, J. (2007). A comparative study for finding archaeological crop marks using airborne hyperspectral, multispectral and digital photographic data. In: Proceedings of the 2007 Annual Conference of the Remote Sensing & Photogrammetry Society (RSPSoc2007).
6. Asner, G. P. (1998). Biophysical and biochemical sources of variability in canopy reflectance. Remote Sensing of Environment, 64, 234-253.
7. Avery, T. E., & Lyons, T. R. (1981). Remote sensing. Aerial and terrestrial photography for archeologists. Washington: Cultural Resources Management Division.
8. Backe Forsberg, Y., Holmgren, R., Lanorte, A., Lasaponara, R., & Masini, N. (2008). Airborne and satellite multispectral imagery at the Etruscan site of San Giovenale, Blero (Lazio)-preliminary results. In R. Lasaponara & N. Masini (Eds.), Remote sensing for archaeology and cultural heritage management. Proceedings of the 1st International EARSeL Workshop, CNR, Rome (pp. 225-228). Rome: Aracne.
9. Baret, F., & Jacquemoud, S. (1994). Modeling canopy spectral properties to retrieve biophysical and biochemical characteristics. In J. Hill & J. Mégier (Eds.), Imaging spectrometry-a tool for environmental observations (pp. 145-167). Amsterdam: Kluwer.
10. Baret, F., Vanderbilt, V. C., Steven, M. D., & Jacquemoud, S. (1994). Use of spectral analogy to evaluate canopy reflectance sensitivity to leaf optical properties. Remote Sensing of Environment, 48, 253-260.
11. Bassani, C., Cavalli, R. M., Pascucci, S., & Pignatti, S. (2008). Airborne hyperspectral remote sensing as a tool for detecting buried archaeological structures: Preliminary results for land cover in different contexts. In R. Lasaponara & N. Masini (Eds.), Remote sensing for archaeology and cultural heritage management. Proceedings of the 1st International EARSeL workshop, CNR, Rome (pp. 75-78). Rome: Aracne.
12. Benton, A. R., Haas, R. H., Rouse, J. W., & Toler, R. W. (1976). Low-cost aerial photography for vegetation analysis. Journal of Applied Photographic Engineering, 2, 46-49.
13. Bewley, R. H. (2003). Aerial survey for archaeology. The Photogrammetric Record, 18, 273-292.
14. Blakeman, R. H. (1990). The identification of crop disease and stress by aerial photography. In M. D. Steven & J. A. Clark (Eds.), Applications of remote sensing in agriculture (pp. 229-254). London: Butterworths.
15. Bobbe, T. (1997). Applications of a colour infrared digital camera system as a remote sensing tool for natural resource management. In Proceedings of the first North American symposium on small format aerial photography, Cloquet, Minnesota, USA (pp. 71-79). Bethesda: American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing.
16. Bobbe, T. J., & Zigaldo, J. P. (1995). Airborne: color infrared digital camera system for natural resources surveys. Earth Observation Magazine, 4, 60-62.
17. Bowman, W. D. (1989). The relationship between leaf water status, gas exchange, and spectral reflectance in cotton leaves. Remote Sensing of Environment, 30, 249-255.
18. Braasch, O. (2007). Gallipoli ahead-air survey between the Baltic and Mediterranean. In I. Kuzma (Ed.), Publikácia vznikla v rámci Centra excelentnosti SAV Výskumné centrum Najstarsích dejín Podunajska pri Archeologickom ústave SAV v Nitre, Nitra (pp. 84-96). Nitra: Archeologickom ústave SAV.
19. Bradford, J. (1957). Ancient landscapes. Studies in field archaeology. London: G. Bell and Sons.
20. Broge, N. H., & Mortensen, J. V. (2002). Deriving green crop area index and canopy chlorophyll density of winter wheat from spectral reflectane data. Remote Sensing of Environment, 81, 45-57.
21. Brooner, W. G., & Simonett, D. S. (1971). Crop discrimination with color infrared photography: a study in Douglas County, Kansas. Remote Sensing of Environment, 2, 21-35.
22. Buettner-Janusch, J. (1954). Use of infrared photography in archaeological field work. American Antiquity, 20, 84-87.
23. Busch, D. D. (2007). Digital infrared pro secrets. Boston: Thomson.
24. Cameron, H. L. (1958). History from the air. Photogrammetric Engineering, 24, 366-375.
25. Carter, G. A. (1991). Primary and secondary effects of water content on the spectral reflectance of leaves. American Journal of Botany, 78, 916-924.
26. Carter, G. A. (1993). Responses of leaf spectral reflectance to plant stress. American Journal of Botany, 80, 239-243.
27. Carter, G. A. (1994). Ratios of leaf reflectances in narrow wavebands as indicators of plant stress. International Journal of Remote Sensing, 15, 697-703.
28. Carter, G. A. (2001) General spectral characteristics of leaf reflectance responses to plant stress and implications for the remote sensing of vegetation. In: Proceedings, 2001 ASPRS annual conference: Gateway to the new millennium, St. Louis. Bethesda: American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing.
29. Carter, G. A., & Estep, L. (2002). General spectral characteristics of leaf reflectance responses to plant stress and their manifestation at the landscape scale. In R. S. Muttiah (Ed.), From laboratory spectroscopy to remotely sensed spectra of terrestrial ecosystems (pp. 271-293). Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
30. Carter, G. A., & Knapp, A. K. (2001). Leaf optical properties in higher plants: linking spectral characteristics to stress and chlorophyll concentration. American Journal of Botany, 88, 677-684.
31. Carter, G. A., & McCain, D. C. (1993). Relationship of leaf spectral reflectance to chloroplast water content determined using NMR microscopy. Remote Sensing of Environment, 46, 305-310.
32. Carter, G. A., & Young, D. R. (1993). Foliar spectral reflectance and plant stress on a barrier island. International Journal of Plant Sciences, 154, 298-305.
33. Carter, G. A., Rebbeck, J., & Percy, K. E. (1995). Leaf optical properties in Liriodendron tulipifera and Pinus strobus as influenced by increased atmospheric ozone and carbon dioxide. Canadian Journal of Forest Research, 25, 407-412.
34. Chapin, F. S. (1991). Integrated responses of plants to stress. Bioscience, 41, 29-36.
35. Chappelle, E. W., Kim, M. S., & McMurtrey, J. E., III. (1992). Ratio analysis of reflectance spectra (RARS): an algorithm for the remote estimation of the concentrations of chlorophyll A, chlorophyll B, and carotenoids in soybean leaves. Remote Sensing of Environment, 39, 239-247.
36. Clark, R. N. (1999). Spectroscopy of rocks and minerals, and principles of spectroscopy. In A. Rencz (Ed.), Remote sensing for the earth sciences (pp. 3-58). New York: Wiley.
37. Clark, R. N., King, T. V. V., Ager, C., Swayze, G. A. (1995). Initial vegetation species and senescence/stress indicator mapping in the San Luis Valley, CO, using imaging spectrometer data. In: H. H. Posey, J. A. Pendelton, D. van Zyl (Eds.), Proceedings: Summiville Forum 1995 (pp. 64-69).
38. Colwell, J. E. (1974). Vegetation canopy reflectance. Remote Sensing of Environment, 3, 175-183.
39. Colwell, R. N., Carneggie, D., Croxton, R., Manzer, F., Simonett, D., & Steiner, D. (1970). Applications of remote sensing in agriculture and forestry. In Committee on Remote Sensing for Agricultural Purposes (Ed.), Remote sensing with special reference to agriculture and forestry (pp. 164-223). Washington: National Academy of Sciences.
40. Conlon, V. M. (1973). Camera techniques in archaeology. London: John Baker.
41. Crawford, O. G. S., & Keiller, A. (1928). Wessex from the air. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
42. Crawshaw, A. (1995). Oblique aerial photography-aircraft, cameras and films. In J. Kunow (Ed.), Luftbildarchäologie in Ost und Mitteleuropa. Internationales Symposium, Kleinmachnow, Land Brandenburg (pp. 67-76). Potsdam: Verlag Brandenburgisches Landesmuseum für Ur und Frühgeschichte.
43. Curcio, J. A., & Petty, C. C. (1951). The near infrared absorption spectrum of liquid water. Journal of the Optical Society of America, 41, 302-304.
44. Curran, P. J. (1980). Multispectral remote sensing of vegetation amount. Progress in Physical Geography, 4, 315-341.
45. Curran, P. J. (1983). Multispectral remote sensing for the estimation of green leaf area index. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society London. A. Mathematical and Physical Sciences, 309, 257-270.
46. Curran, P. J. (1985). Aerial photography for the assessment of crop condition: a review. Applied Geography, 5, 347-360.
47. Dean, C., Warner, T. A., & McGraw, J. B. (2000). Suitability of the DCS460c colour digital camera for quantitative remote sensing analysis of vegetation. ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, 55, 105-118.
48. Doneus, M. (2005). Digital aerial photography-fancy gadget or underestimated necessity? AARGnews Supplement 1. Festschrift dedicated to Rog Palmer on his 60th Birthday, pp. 40-42.
49. Doneus, M., & Neubauer, W. (2010). LBI for archaeological prospection and virtual archaeology. AARGNews, 41, 11.
50. Donoghue, D. N. M., & Shennan, I. (1988a). The application of multispectral remote sensing to wetland archaeology. In P. Murphy & C. French (Eds.), The exploitation of wetlands (pp. 47-59). Oxford: Archaeopress.
51. Donoghue, D. N. M., & Shennan, I. (1988b). The application of remote sensing to environmental archaeology. Geoarchaeology, 3, 275-285.
52. Dorrell, P. G. (1994). Photography in archaeology and conservation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
53. Driver, T. (2004). Chairman's piece. AARGnews, 29, 6-8.
54. Due Trier, Ø., Loska, A., Øyen Larsen, S., & Solberg, R. (2008). Detection of burial mounds in high-resolution satellite images of agricultural land. In R. Lasaponara & N. Masini (Eds.), Remote sensing for archaeology and cultural heritage management. Proceedings of the 1st International EARSeL Workshop, CNR, Rome (pp. 17-21). Rome: Aracne.
55. Dungan, J., Johnson, L., Billow, C., Matson, P., Mazzurco, J., Moen, J., et al. (1996). High spectral resolution reflectance of Douglas fir grown under different fertilization treatments: experiment design and treatment effects. Remote Sensing of Environment, 55, 217-228.
56. Eastman Kodak Company (1999). Conversion of light (Photons) to electronic charge. Eastman Kodak Company, Rochester. http://www. kodak. com/US/en/digital/pdf/ccdPrimerPart1. pdf. Accessed 26 June 2005.
57. Eastman Kodak Company (2004). Kodak Ektachrome Professional Infrared EIR Film. Eastman Kodak Company, Rochester. http://www. kodak. com/global/en/professional/support/techPubs/ti2323/ti2323. pdf. Accessed 28 Oct 2005.
58. Eastman Kodak Company (2005). Kodak Aerochrome III Infrared Film 1443. Eastman Kodak Company, Rochester. http://www. kodak. com/eknec/documents/7b/0900688a802b097b/EN_ti2562. pdf. Accessed 27 Oct 2005.
59. Eastman Kodak Company. (1985). Photography from lightplanes and helicopters. Rochester: Eastman Kodak Company.
60. Edeine, B. (1956). Une méthode pratique pour la détection aérienne des sites archéologiques, en particulier par la photographie sur films en couleurs et sur film infra-rouges. Bulletin de la Société Préhistorique Française, 53, 540-546.
61. Estep, L., Carter, G. A., & Berglund, J. (2005). Derivative analysis of AVIRIS data for crop stress detection. Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing, 71, 1417-1421.
62. Evans, R. (2007). The weather and other factors controlling the appearance of crop marks on clay and 'difficult' soils. In J. Mills & R. Palmer (Eds.), Populating clay landscapes (pp. 16-27). Stroud: Tempus.
63. Evans, R., & Jones, R. J. A. (1977). Crop marks and soil marks at two archaeological sites in Britain. Journal of Archaeological Science, 4, 63-76.
64. Everitt, J. H., Escobar, D. E., Noriega, J. R., Davis, M. R., Cavazos, I. (1997) A digital imaging system and its application to natural resource management. In Proceedings of the first North American symposium on small format aerial photography, Cloquet, Minnesota, USA (pp. 123-135). Bethesda: American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing.
65. Foley, S., Rivard, B., Sanchez-Azofeifa, G. A., & Calvo, J. (2006). Foliar spectral properties following leaf clipping and implications for handling techniques. Remote Sensing of Environment, 103, 265-275.
66. Fowler, M. J. F. (1995). Detection of archaeological features on multispectral satellite imagery. AARGnews, 10, 7-14.
67. Fowler, M. J. F. (1996). High-resolution satellite imagery in archaeological application: a Russian satellite photograph of the stonehenge region. Antiquity, 70, 667-671.
68. Fowler, M. J. F., & Fowler, Y. M. (2005). Detection of archaeological crop marks on declassified CORONA KH-4B intelligence satellite photography of Southern England. Archaeological Prospection, 12, 257-264.
69. Gates, D. M. (1970). Physical and physiological properties of plants. In Committee on Remote Sensing for Agricultural Purposes (Ed.), Remote sensing with special reference to agriculture and forestry (pp. 224-252). Washington D. C: National Academy of Sciences.
70. Gates, D. M., Keegan, H. J., Schleter, J. C., & Weidner, V. R. (1965). Spectral properties of plants. Applied Optics, 4, 11-20.
71. Gausman, H. W. (1974). Leaf reflectance of near-infrared. Photogrammetric Engineering, 40, 183-191.
72. Gausman, H. W., Allen, W. A., & Cardenas, R. (1969). Reflectance of cotton leaves and their structure. Remote Sensing of Environment, 1, 110-122.
73. Gibson, L. H. (1978). Photography by infrared: its principles and applications (3rd ed.). New York: Wiley.
74. Girard, M.-C., & Girard, C. M. (2003). Processing of remote sensing data. Lisse: Balkema Publishers.
75. Gitelson, A. A., Kaufman, Y. J., Stark, R., & Rundquist, D. (2002). Novel algorithms for remote estimation of vegetation fraction. Remote Sensing of Environment, 80, 76-87.
76. Gitelson, A. A., Gritz, Y., & Merzlyak, M. N. (2003). Relationships between leaf chlorophyll content and spectral reflectance and algorithms for non-destructive chlorophyll assessment in higher plant leaves. Journal of Plant Physiology, 160, 271-282.
77. Goguey, R. (1977). Est. Recherches aériennes de la Loire au Rhin en 1976. Dossiers de l'archéologie, 22, 48-56.
78. Goillot, C. C. (1980). Significance of spectral reflectance for natural surfaces. In G. Fraysse (Ed.), Remote sensing application in agriculture and hydrology (pp. 53-68). Rotterdam: Balkema.
79. GopalaPillai, S., & Tian, L. (1999). In-field variability detection and spatial yield modeling for corn using digital aerial imaging. Transactions of the ASAE, 42, 1911-1920.
80. Graham, C. H. (1995). Kodak digital cameras for small format aerial photography. The Photogrammetric Record, 15, 325-327.
81. Graham, R., & Koh, A. (2002). Digital aerial survey: theory and practice. Boca Raton: CRC Press.
82. Gumerman, G. J., & Neely, J. A. (1972). An archaeological survey of the Tehuacan Valley, Mexico: a test of color infrared photography. American Antiquity, 37, 520-527.
83. Guyot, G. (1990). Optical properties of vegetation canopies. In M. D. Steven & J. A. Clark (Eds.), Applications of remote sensing in agriculture (pp. 19-43). London: Butterworths.
84. Hammond, P. C. (1963). Archaeological techniques for amateurs. New York: van Nostrand.
85. Hampton, J. N. (1974). An experiment in multispectral air photography for archaeological research. The Photogrammetric Record, 8, 37-64.
86. Harp, E. (1968). Anthropological interpretation from color. In Manual of color aerial photography (pp. 384-385). Falls Church: American Society of Photogrammetry.
87. Hatfield, J. L., Gitelson, A. A., Schepers, J. S., & Walthall, C. L. (2008). Application of spectral remote sensing for agronomic decisions. Agronomy Journal, 100, S-117-S-131.
88. Heller, R. C. (1970). Imaging with photographic sensors. In Committee on Remote Sensing for Agricultural Purposes (Ed.), Remote sensing with special reference to agriculture and forestry (pp. 35-72). Washington: National Academy of Sciences.
89. Hendry, G. A. F., Houghton, J. D., & Brown, S. B. (1987). Tansley review no. 11. The degradation of chorophyll-a biological enigma. The New Phytologist, 107, 255-302.
90. Hershey, J. R., & Zhang, Z. (2006). US patent 20060066738, multispectral digital camera employing both visible light and non-visible light sensing on a single image sensor.
91. Horler, D. N. H., Dockray, M., & Barber, J. (1983). The red edge of plant leaf reflectance. International Journal of Remote Sensing, 4, 273-288.
92. Hunt, E. R., Jr., & Rock, B. N. (1989). Detection of changes in leaf water content using near and middle-infrared reflectances. Remote Sensing of Environment, 30, 43-54.
93. Itek Data Corporation. (1965). Archaeological photo interpretation. Washington: United States Department of Commerce Clearinghouse.
94. Jackson, R. D. (1986). Remote sensing of biotic and abiotic plant stress. Annual Review of Phytopathology, 24, 265-287.
95. Jalmain, D. (1970). Archéologie aérienne en Île-de-France. Beauce, Brie, Champagne. Éditions Technip, Paris.
96. Jensen, J. R. (2007). Remote sensing of the environment: an earth resource perspective (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River: Prentice Hall.
97. Jones, R. J. A. (1979). Crop marks induced by soil moisture stress at an iron age site in Midland England, UK. Archaeo-Physika 10 (Proceedings of the 18th International Symposium on Archaeometry and Archaeological Prospection, Bonn, 14-17 March 1978), pp. 656-668.
98. Jones, R. J. A., & Evans, R. (1975). Soil and crop marks in the recognition of archaeological sites by air photography. In D. R. Wilson (Ed.), Aerial reconnaissance for archaeology (pp. 1-11). London: The Council for British Archaeology.
99. Jordan, C. F. (1969). Derivation of leaf-area index from quality of light on the forest floor. Ecology, 50, 663-666.
100. Kimes, D. S. (1983). Dynamics of directional reflectance factor distributions for vegetation canopies. Applied Optics, 22, 1364-1372.
101. King, D., Walsh, P., & Ciuffreda, F. (1994). Airborne digital frame camera imaging for elevation determination. Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing, 60, 1321-1326.
102. King, D. J., Haddow, K., Pitt, D. G. (1997). Evaluation of CIR digital camera imagery in regeneration assessment: research design and initial results. In Proceedings of the first North American symposium on small format aerial photography, Cloquet, Minnesota, USA (pp. 186-195). Bethesda: American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing.
103. Knapp, A. K., Disperati, A., Hoppus, M. (1997). Evaluation of a colour infrared digital camera system for forest health protection applications in the Western United States and Southern Brazil. In Proceedings of the first North American symposium on small format aerial photography, Cloquet, Minnesota, USA (pp. 80-90). Bethesda: American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing.
104. Knipling, E. B. (1970). Physical and physiological basis for the reflectance of visible and near-infrared radiation from vegetation. Remote Sensing of Environment, 1, 155-159.
105. Koch, B., Ammer, U., Schneider, T., & Wittmeier, H. (1990). Spectroradiometer measurements in the laboratory and in the field to analyse the influence of different damage symptoms on the reflection spectra of forest trees. International Journal of Remote Sensing, 11, 1145-1164.
106. Koyoma, T. (2006). Optics in digital still cameras. In J. Nakamura (Ed.), Image sensors and signal processing for digital still cameras (pp. 21-51). Boca Raton: Taylor & Francis.
107. Krinov, E. L. (1971). Spectral reflectance properties of natural formations. Ottawa: National Research Council of Canada.
108. Lasaponara, R., & Masini, N. (2006a). On the potential of QuickBird data for archaeological prospection. International Journal of Remote Sensing, 27, 3607-3614.
109. Lasaponara, R., & Masini, N. (2006b). In S. Campana & M. Forte (Eds.), From space to place. 2nd international conference on remote sensing in archaeology. Proceedings of the 2nd International Workshop, CNR, Rome, Italy (pp. 13-20). Oxford: Archaeopress.
110. Lasaponara, R., & Masini, N. (2007). Detection of archaeological crop marks by using satellite quickbird multispectral imagery. Journal of Archaeological Science, 34, 214-221.
111. Lelong, C. C. D., Pinet, P. C., & Poilvé, H. (1998). Hyperspectral imaging and stress mapping in agriculture: a case study on wheat in Beauce (France). Remote Sensing of Environment, 66, 179-191.
112. Lichtenthaler, H. K. (1987). Chlorophylls and carotenoids: pigments of photosynthetic biomembranes. Methods in Enzymology, 148, 350-382.
113. Lichtenthaler, H. K. (1998). The stress concept in plants: an introduction. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 851, 187-198.
114. Lobell, D. B., Asner, G. P., Law, B. E., & Treuhaft, R. N. (2002). View angle effects on canopy reflectance and spectral mixture analysis of coniferous forests using AVIRIS. International Journal of Remote Sensing, 23, 2247-2262.
115. Lyon, J. G., Yuan, D., Lunetta, R. S., & Elvidge, C. D. (1998). A change detection experiment using vegetation indices. Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing, 64, 143-150.
116. Lyons, T. R., & Avery, T. E. (1977). Remote sensing: a handbook for archaeologists and cultural resource managers. Washington: National Park Service.
117. Maas, S. J., & Dunlap, J. R. (1989). Reflectance, transmittance, and absorptance of light by normal, etiolated, and albino corn leaves. Agronomy Journal, 81, 105-110.
118. Matheny, R. T. (1962). Value of aerial photography in surveying archaeological sites in coastal jungle regions. American Antiquity, 28, 226-230.
119. Merzlyak, M. N., & Gitelson, A. A. (1995). Why and what for the leaves are yellow in autumn? On the interpretation of optical spectra of senescing leaves (Acer platanoides L.). Journal of Plant Physiology, 145, 315-320.
120. Moran, M. S., Pinter, P. J., Clothier, B. E., & Allen, S. G. (1989). Effects of water stress on the canopy architecture and spectral indices of irrigated alfalfa. Remote Sensing of Environment, 29, 251-261.
121. Murtha, P. A. (1978). Remote sensing and vegetation damage: a theory for detection and assessment. Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing, 44, 1147-1158.
122. Myers, V. I., Heilman, M. D., Lyon, R. J. P., Namken, L. N., Simonett, D., Thomas, J. R., et al. (1970). Soil, water and plant relations. In Committee on Remote Sensing for Agricultural Purposes (Ed.), Remote sensing with special reference to agriculture and forestry (pp. 253-297). Washington: National Academy of Sciences.
123. Myneni, R. B., Maggion, S., Iaquinta, J., Privette, J. L., Gobron, N., Pinty, B., et al. (1995). Optical remote sensing of vegetation: modeling, caveats, and algorithms. Remote Sensing of Environment, 51, 169-188.
124. Nakamura, J. (2006). Basics of image sensors. In J. Nakamura (Ed.), Image sensors and signal processing for digital still cameras (pp. 53-93). Boca Raton: Taylor & Francis.
125. Nellis, M. D. (1982). Interpretation of crop health irregularities using color infrared photographs. Journal of Geography, 81, 61-63.
126. Olthof, I., & King, D. J. (1997). Evaluation of textural information in airborne CIR digital camera imagery for estimation of forest stand leaf area index. In Proceedings of the first North American symposium on small format aerial photography, Cloquet, Minnesota, USA (pp. 154-164). Bethesda: American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing.
127. Peñuelas, J., & Filella, I. (1998). Visible and near-infrared reflectance techniques for diagnosing plant physiological status. Trends in Plant Science, 3, 151-156.
128. Peñuelas, J., Gamon, J. A., Fredeen, A. L., Merino, J., & Field, C. B. (1994). Reflectance indices associated with physiological changes in nitrogen and water-limited sunflower leaves. Remote Sensing of Environment, 48, 135-146.
129. Peterson, D. L., & Running, S. W. (1989). Applications in the forest science and management. In G. Asrar (Ed.), Theory and applications of optical remote sensing (pp. 4210-4273). New York: John Wiley.
130. Petit, J. P. (1977). Aquitaine. Premières recherches aériennes en Gironde. Dossiers de l'archéologie, 22, 34-37.
131. Petrie, G. (2003). Airborne digital frame cameras. The technology is really improving! GeoInformatics, 6, 18-27.
132. Pouliot, D. A., King, D. J., Bell, F. W., & Pitt, D. G. (2002). Automated tree crown detection and delineation in high-resolution digital camera imagery of coniferous forest regeneration. Remote Sensing of Environment, 82, 322-334.
133. Powlesland, D. (2001). The Heslerton parish project: an integrated multi-sensor approach to archaeological study of Eastern Yorkshire, England. In S. Campana & M. Forte (Eds.), Remote sensing in archaeology (pp. 233-255). Florence: All'Insegna del Giglio.
134. Powlesland, D. (2006). Redefining past landscapes: 30 years of remote sensing in the Vale of Pickering. In S. Campana & M. Forte (Eds.), From space to place. 2nd international conference on remote sensing in archaeology. Proceedings of the 2nd international workshop, CNR, Rome, Italy (pp. 197-201). Oxford: Archaeopress.
135. Powlesland, D., Lyall, J., Donoghue, D. N. M. (1997). Enhancing the record through remote sensing. The application and integration of multi-sensor, non-invasive remote sensing techniques for the enhancement of the sites and monuments record. Heslerton Parish Project, N. Yorkshire, England. Internet Archaeology 2. intarch. ac. uk/journal/issue2/pld_index. html. Accessed 31 Jan 2008.
136. Rabideau, G. S., French, C. S., & Holt, A. S. (1946). The absorption and reflection spectra of leaves, chloroplast suspensions, and chloroplast fragments as measured in an Ulbricht Sphere. American Journal of Botany, 33, 769-777.
137. Rawling, S. O. (1946). Infra-red photography (3rd ed.). London: Blackie & Son Limited.
138. Ray, S. F. (2002). Applied photographic optics. Lenses and optical systems for photography, film, video, electronic and digital imaging (3rd ed.). Oxford: Focal.
139. Richardson, A. J., & Everitt, J. H. (1992). Using spectral vegetation indices to estimate rangeland productivity. Geocarto International, 1, 63-77.
140. Rigaud, P., & Hersé, M. (1986). Télédétection photographique infrarouge à partir de ballons captifs. Comptes Rendus de l'Académie des Sciences. Série 2. Mécanique, Physique. Chimie, 303, 1703-1708.
141. Riley, D. N. (1980). Factors in the development of crop marks. Aerial archaeology. The Journal for Air Photography and Archaeology, 4, 28-32.
142. Rinker, J. N. (1975). Some technical aspects of film emulsions in relation to the analysis and interpretation of aerial photographs. In D. R. Wilson (Ed.), Aerial reconnaissance for archaeology (pp. 32-46). London: The Council for British Archaeology.
143. Ross, K. (1933). Zur Photographie mit ultraviolettem und infrarotem Licht. Zeiss Nachrichten, 4, 19-27.
144. Sandmeier, S. R., & Itten, K. I. (1999). Field goniometer system (FIGOS) for acquisition of hyperspectral BRDF data. IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing, 37, 978-986.
145. Schepers, J. S., Blackmer, T. M., Wilhelm, W. W., & Resende, M. (1996). Transmittance and reflectance measurements of corn leaves from plants with different nitrogen and water supply. Journal of Plant Physiology, 148, 523-529.
146. Schlerf, M., Atzberger, C., & Hill, J. (2005). Remote sensing of forest biophysical variables using HyMap imaging spectrometer data. Remote Sensing of Environment, 95, 177-194.
147. Scollar, I. (1964). Physical conditions tending to produce crop sites in the Rhineland. In Archéologie Aérienne (pp. 39-47) Paris: Colloque International. S. E. V. P. E. N.
148. Scollar, I., Tabbagh, A., Hesse, A., & Herzog, I. (1990). Archaeological prospecting and remote sensing. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
149. Shakir Hanna, S. H., & Girmay-Gwahid, B. (1998). Spectral characterization of water stress impact on some agricultural crops: II. Studies on alfalfa using handheld radiometer. In E. T. Engman (Ed.), Remote sensing for agriculture, ecosystems, and hydrology, Barcelona, Spain (pp. 296-306). Bellingham: SPIE.
150. Shakir Hanna, S. H., & Girmay-Gwahid, B. (1999). Spectral characterization of water stress impact on some agricultural crops: III. Studies on sudan grass and other different crops using handheld radiometer. In G. Cecchi, E. T. Engman, & E. Zilioli (Eds.), Remote sensing for earth science, ocean, and sea ice applications, Florence, Italy (pp. 154-166). Bellingham: SPIE.
151. Shell, C. (2002). Airborn high-resolution digital, visible, infra-red and thermal sensing. In R. H. Bewley & W. Raczkowski (Eds.), Aerial archaeology: developing future practice (pp. 181-195). Amsterdam: Ios.
152. Shennan, I., & Donoghue, D. N. M. (1992). Remote sensing in archaeological research. In A. M. Pollard (Ed.), New developments in archaeological science. A joint symposium of the royal society and the British Academy (pp. 223-232). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
153. Shortis, M. R., & Beyer, H. A. (1997). Calibration stability of the Kodak DCS420 and 460 cameras. In S. F. El-Hakim (Ed.), Videometrics V, San Diego, CA, USA (pp. 94-105). Bellingham: SPIE.
154. Sigernes, F., Holmes, J. M., Dyrland, M., Lorentzen, D. A., Svenøe, T., Heia, K., et al. (2008). Sensitivity calibration of digital colour cameras for auroral imaging. Optics Express, 16, 15623-15632.
155. Sinclair, T. R., Schreiber, M. M., & Hoffer, R. M. (1973). Diffuse reflectance hypothesis for the pathway of solar radiation through leaves. Agronomy Journal, 65, 276-283.
156. Slater, J. C., & Frank, N. H. (1974). Electromagnetism. New York: Dover Publications.
157. Slaton, M. R., Hunt, E. R., Jr., & Smith, W. K. (2001). Estimating near-infrared leaf reflectance from leaf structural characteristics. American Journal of Botany, 88, 278-284.
158. Solomon, E. P., Berg, L. R., & Martin, D. W. (2005). Biology, seventh international student ed. London: Thomson.
159. Stow, D., Hope, A., Richardson, D., Chen, D., Garrison, C., & Service, D. (2000). Potential of colour infrared digital camera imagery for inventory and mapping of alien plant invasions in South African Shrublands. International Journal of Remote Sensing, 21, 2965-2970.
160. Strandberg, C. H. (1967). Photoarchaeology. Photogrammetric Engineering, 33, 1152-1157.
161. Summy, K. R., Little, C. R., Mazariegos, R. A., Everitt, J. H., Davis, M. R., French, J. V., et al. (2003). Detecting stress in glasshouse plants using color infrared imagery: a potential new application for remote sensing. Subtropical Plant Science, 55, 51-58.
162. Tahahoto, H., Sogawa, K., Watanabe, T., Higuchi, H. (1991). Spectral reflectivity of the crop leaves damaged by cnaphalocrocis medinalis and spodoptera litura. In Proceedings of the 12th Asian conference on remote sensing, Singapore (pp. 261-266). Singapore: Asian Association on Remote Sensing.
163. Tartaglia, L. J. (1977). Infrared archaeological reconnaissance. In T. R. Lyons & R. K. Hitchcock (Eds.), Aerial remote sensing techniques in archaeology (pp. 35-48). Albuquerque: National Park Service.
164. Thomas, J. R., & Oerther, G. F. (1977). Estimation of crop conditions and sugar cane yields using photography. In American society of sugar cane technology proceedings, (pp. 93-99).
165. Totterdell, C. J., & Rains, A. B. (1973). Plant reflectance and colour infrared photography. Journal of Applied Ecology, 10, 401-407.
166. Toyoda, K. (2006). Digital still cameras at a glance. In J. Nakamura (Ed.), Image sensors and signal processing for digital still cameras (pp. 1-19). Boca Raton: Taylor & Francis.
167. van de Wiele, F. (1976). Photodiode quantum efficiency. In P. G. Jespers, F. van de Wiele, & M. H. White (Eds.), Solid state imaging. Proceedings of the NATO advanced study institute on solid state imaging, Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium (pp. 47-90). Leyden: Noordhoff.
168. Verhoeven, G. J. J. (2007). Becoming a NIR-sensitive aerial archaeologist. In C. Neale, M. Owe, & G. D'Urso (Eds.), Remote sensing for agriculture, ecosystems, and hydrology IX, Florence, Italy (pp. 333-345). Bellingham: SPIE.
169. Verhoeven, G. J. J. (2008). Imaging the invisible using modified digital still cameras for straightforward and low-cost archaeological near-infrared photography. Journal of Archaeological Science, 35, 3087-3100.
170. Verhoeven, G. J. J. (2010). It's all about the format-unleashing the power of RAW aerial photography. International Journal of Remote Sensing, 31, 2009-2042.
171. Verhoeven, G. J. J., & De Vliegher, B. M. (2004). Oblique aerial photography in a GIS environment for geo-archaeological research-a case study: the Potenza Valley survey. In R. Goossens (Ed.), Remote sensing in transition. Proceedings of the 23rd symposium of the European association of remote sensing laboratories, Ghent, Belgium (pp. 427-434). Rotterdam: Millpress.
172. Verhoeven, G. J. J., & Loenders, J. (2006). Looking through black-tinted glasses-a remotely controlled infrared eye in the sky. In S. Campana & M. Forte (Eds.), From space to place. 2nd International Conference on Remote Sensing in Archaeology. Proceedings of the 2nd International Workshop, CNR, Rome, Italy (pp. 73-79). Oxford: Archaeopress.
173. Verhoeven, G. J. J., & Vermeulen, F. (2004). The Potenza Valley Survey: towards an explanation of the settlement patterns through the combined use of GIS and different survey techniques. In M. der Stadt Wien, E. Refereat Kulturelles, & W. Stadtarchäologie (Eds.), Enter the past. The E-way into the four dimensions of cultural heritage. CAA 2003. Computer applications and quantitative methods in archaeology, Proceedings of the 31st Conference, Vienna, Austria (pp. 312-316). Oxford: Archaeopress.
174. Verhoeven, G. J. J., Loenders, J., Vermeulen, F., & Docter, R. (2009a). Helikite aerial photography (HAP)-a versatile means of unmanned, radio-controlled, low-altitude aerial archaeology. Archaeological Prospection, 16, 125-138.
175. Verhoeven, G. J. J., Smet, P. F., Poelman, D., & Vermeulen, F. (2009b). Spectral characterisation of a digital still camera's NIR-modification to enhance archaeological observation. IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing, 47, 3456-3468.
176. Vermeulen, F. (2002a). The Potenza Valley Survey (Marche). In P. Attema, G.-J. Burgers, E. van Joolen, M. van Leusen, B. Mater (Eds.), New developments in Italian landscape archaeology. Theory and methodology of field survey. Land evaluation and landscape perception. Pottery production and distribution. Proceedings of a three-day conference held at the University of Groningen, April 13-15, 2000 (pp. 104-106). Oxford: Archaeopress.
177. Vermeulen, F. (2002b). Uit de lucht gegrepen: de bijdrage van archeologische luchtfotografie in het "Potenza Survey" project. Tijdschrift voor Mediterrane Archeologie, 26, 33-42.
178. Vermeulen, F. (2004). Fotografia aerea finalizzata nelle Marche centrali: un progetto integrato. Archeologia Aerea. Studi di Aerotopografia Archeologica, 1, 91-118.
179. Vermeulen, F., & Boullart, C. (2001). The potenza valley survey: preliminary report on field campaign 2000. Babesch, 76, 1-18.
180. Vermeulen, F., & Verhoeven, G. J. J. (2004). The contribution of aerial photography and field survey to the study of early urbanization in Picenum. Journal of Roman Archaeology, 17, 57-82.
181. Vermeulen, F., & Verhoeven, G. J. J. (2006). An integrated survey of roman urbanization at Potentia, Central Italy. Journal of Field Archaeology, 31, 395-410.
182. Vermeulen, F., Monsieur, P., & Boullart, C. (2002). The potenza valley survey: preliminary report on field campaign 2001. Babesch, 77, 49-71.
183. Vermeulen, F., Verhoeven, G. J. J., & Semey, J. (2005). The integration of aerial photography and GIS in the Potenza valley survey. In J. Bourgeois & M. Meganck (Eds.), Aerial photography and archaeology 2003. A century of information, Ghent, Belgium (pp. 371-382). Ghent: Academia.
184. Webster, G., & Hobley, B. (1964). Aerial reconnaissance over the warwickshire avon. Archaeological Journal, 121, 1-22.
185. Wells, G., & Holz, R. K. (1985). Photography beyond the red. In R. K. Holz (Ed.), The surveillant science: Remote sensing of the environment (pp. 184-195). New York: Wiley.
186. Wiegand, C. L., Gausman, H. W., & Allen, W. A. (1972). Physiological factors and optical parameters as bases of vegetation discrimination and stress analysis. In Operational remote sensing, Houston, Texas (pp. 82-102). Falls Church: American Society of Photogrammetry.
187. Wilson, D. R. (1982). Air photo interpretation for archaeologists (2nd ed.). Stroud: Tempus.
188. Woolley, J. T. (1971). Reflectance and transmittance of light by leaves. Plant Physiology, 47, 656-662.
189. Young, A., & Britton, G. (1990). Carotenoids and stress. In R. Hobbs & H. Mooney (Eds.), Stress responses in plants: adaptation and acclimation mechanisms (pp. 87-112). New York: Springer.
190. Zwiggelaar, R. (1998). A review of spectral properties of plants and their potential use for crop/weed discrimination in row-crops. Crop Protection, 17, 189-206.