Difficult Airway Society Guidelines for the management of tracheal extubation

Anaesthesia

Volumn 67, Issue 3, 2012, Pages 318-340

  Popat, M ^a   Mitchell, V ^b   Dravid, R ^c   Patel, A ^d   Swampillai, C ^e   Higgs, A ^f  

^a UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD   (United Kingdom)

^b UNIVERSITY COLLEGE LONDON HOSPITALS   (United Kingdom)

^c KETTERING GENERAL HOSPITAL   (United Kingdom)

^d ROYAL NATIONAL THROAT NOSE AND EAR HOSPITAL   (United Kingdom)

^e LISTER HOSPITAL   (United Kingdom)

^f WARRINGTON AND HALTON HOSPITALS NHS FOUNDATION TRUST   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ANALGESIA; ANAPHYLAXIS; ARTICLE; BREATH HOLDING; CLINICAL ASSESSMENT; CLINICAL PRACTICE; COUGHING; DEVICE REMOVAL; EQUIPMENT; EXTUBATION; HEALTH HAZARD; HUMAN; HUMAN FACTORS RESEARCH; INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION; LARYNX SPASM; LUNG EDEMA; LUNG INJURY; MEDICAL DOCUMENTATION; MORBIDITY; MORTALITY; OBSERVATION; OPERATING ROOM PERSONNEL; OPERATION DURATION; OXYGEN SUPPLY; PATIENT CARE; PATIENT POSITIONING; PATIENT TRANSPORT; PRACTICE GUIDELINE; PROPHYLAXIS; RISK FACTOR; TRACHEAL EXTUBATION; TRACHEOSTOMY; TREATMENT PLANNING;

AIRWAY EXTUBATION; HUMANS; LARYNGEAL MASKS; LARYNX; PIPERIDINES; REFLEX;

EID: 84856896588     PISSN: 00032409     EISSN: 13652044     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2044.2012.07075.x     Document Type: Article

References (200)

1. Cook TM, Scott S, Mihai R,. Litigation related to airway and respiratory complications of anaesthesia: an analysis of claims against the NHS in England 1995-2007. Anaesthesia 2010; 65: 556-63.
2. Peskett MJ,. Clinical indicators and other complications in the recovery room or postanaesthetic care unit. Anaesthesia 1999; 54: 1143-9.
3. Rose DK, Cohen MM, Wigglesworth DF, DeBoer DP,. Critical respiratory events in the postanesthesia care unit. Patient, surgical, and anesthetic factors. Anesthesiology 1994; 81: 410-8. (Pubitemid 24320633)
4. Mhyre JM, Riesner MN, Polley LS, Naughton NN,. A series of anesthesia-related maternal deaths in Michigan, 1985-2003. Anesthesiology 2007; 106: 1096-104. (Pubitemid 46828161)
5. Auroy Y, Benhamou D, Péquignot F, Bovet M, Jougla E, Lienhart A,. Mortality related to anaesthesia in France: analysis of deaths related to airway complications. Anaesthesia 2009; 64: 366-70.
6. Lewis G,. The Confidential Enquiry into Maternal and Child Health (CEMACH). Saving Mothers' Lives: Reviewing Maternal Deaths to make Motherhood Safer-2003-2005. The Seventh Report on Confidential Enquiries into Maternal Deaths in the United Kingdom. London: CEMACH, 2007.
7. Asai T, Koga K, Vaughan RS,. Respiratory complications associated with tracheal intubation and extubation. British Journal of Anaesthesia 1998; 80: 767-75. (Pubitemid 28282550)
8. Abdy S,. An audit of airway problems in the recovery room. Anaesthesia 1999; 54: 372-5. (Pubitemid 29155008)
9. Cook TM, Woodall N, Frerk C,. Royal College of Anaesthetists. 4th National Audit Project: Major Complications of Airway Management in the UK. Royal College of Anaesthetists, London, 2011: 62-70.
10. Peterson GN, Domino KB, Caplan RA, Posner KL, Lee LA, Cheney FW,. Management of the difficult airway: a closed claims analysis. Anesthesiology 2005; 103: 33-9. (Pubitemid 40943134)
11. American Society of Anesthesiologists Task Force on Management of the Difficult Airway. Practice guidelines for management of the difficult airway: an updated report by the American Society of Anesthesiologists Task Force on Management of the Difficult Airway. Anesthesiology 2003; 98: 1269-77.
12. SIAARTI Task Force on Difficult Airway Management. L'intubazione difficile e la difficoltà di controllo delle vie aeree nell'adulto (SIAARTI). Minerva Anestesiologica 1998; 64: 361-71.
13. Braun U, Goldmann K, Hempel V, Krie C,. Airway management. Guidelines of the German Society of Anesthesiology and Intensive Care. Anasthesiologie, Intensivmedizin, Notfallmedizin, Schmerztherapie 2004; 45: 302-6.
14. Boisson-Bertrand D, Bourgain JL, Camboulives J, et al., Difficult intubation. French Society of Anesthesia and Intensive Care. A collective expertise. Annales Francaises D'Anesthesie et de Réanimation 1996; 15: 207-14.
15. Crosby ET, Cooper RM, Douglas MJ, et al., The unanticipated difficult airway with recommendations for management. Canadian Journal of Anesthesia 1998; 45: 757-76. (Pubitemid 28550511)
16. Heidegger T, Gerig HJ, Henderson JJ,. Strategies and algorithms for management of the difficult airway. Best Practice & Research Clinical Anaesthesiology 2005; 19: 661-74. (Pubitemid 43019589)
17. Royal College of Anaesthetists. The CCT in anaesthetics training programme august 2010 (accessed 07/12/2011).
18. Henderson JJ, Popat MT, Latto IP, Pearce AC,. Difficult Airway Society guidelines for management of the unanticipated difficult intubation. Anaesthesia 2004; 59: 675-94. (Pubitemid 38997010)
19. American Society of Anesthesiologists Task Force on Management of the Difficult Airway. Practice guidelines for management of the difficult airway. Anesthesiology 1993; 78: 597-602.
20. Oxford centre for evidence-based medicine-Levels of evidence. (accessed 07/12/2011).
21. Cooper GM, McClure JH,. Anaesthesia chapter from saving mothers' lives; reviewing maternal deaths to make pregnancy safer. British Journal of Anaesthesia 2008; 100: 17-22. (Pubitemid 351773427)
22. Langton JA,. Airway reflexes. In:, Calder I, Pearce A, eds. Core Topics in Airway Management. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2011: 28-35.
23. Miller KA, Harkin CP, Bailey PL,. Postoperative tracheal extubation. Anesthesia and Analgesia 1995; 80: 149-72.
24. Ikari T, Sasaki CT,. Glottic closure reflex: control mechanisms. Annals of Otology, Rhinology, and Laryngology 1980; 89: 220-4. (Pubitemid 10080176)
25. Fink BR,. The curse of Adam: effort closure of the larynx. Anesthesiology 1973; 39: 325-7.
26. Landsman IS,. Mechanisms and treatment of laryngospasm. International Anesthesiology Clinics 1997; 35: 67-73. (Pubitemid 27473309)
27. Rex MA,. A review of the structural and functional basis of laryngospasm and a discussion of the nerve pathways involved in the reflex and its clinical significance in man and animals. British Journal of Anaesthesia 1970; 42: 891-9.
28. Pak HJ, Lee WH, Ji SM, Choi YH,. Effect of a small dose of propofol or ketamine to prevent coughing and laryngospasm in children awakening from general anesthesia. Korean Journal of Anesthesiology 2011; 60: 25-9.
29. Hans P, Marechal H, Bonhomme V,. Effect of propofol and sevoflurane on coughing in smokers and non-smokers awakening from general anaesthesia at the end of a cervical spine surgery. British Journal of Anaesthesia 2008; 101: 731-7.
30. Barker P, Langton JA, Wilson IG, Smith G,. Movements of the vocal cords on induction of anaesthesia with thiopentone or propofol. British Journal of Anaesthesia 1992; 69: 23-5.
31. McKeating K, Bali IM, Dundee JW,. The effects of thiopentone and propofol on upper airway integrity. Anaesthesia 1988; 43: 638-40.
32. Olsson GL, Hallen B,. Laryngospasm during anaesthesia. A computer-aided incidence study in 136,929 patients. Acta Anaesthesiologica Scandinavica 1984; 28: 567-75. (Pubitemid 14038883)
33. Patton WC, Baker CL,. Prevalence of negative-pressure pulmonary edema at an orthopaedic hospital. Journal of the Southern Orthopaedic Association 2000; 9: 248-53. (Pubitemid 33292209)
34. Lang SA, Duncan PG, Shephard DA, Ha HC,. Pulmonary oedema associated with airway obstruction. Canadian Journal of Anesthesia 1990; 37: 210-8. (Pubitemid 20091612)
35. Scarbrough FE, Wittenberg JM, Smith BR, Adcock DK,. Pulmonary edema following postoperative laryngospasm: case reports and review of the literature. Anesthesia Progress 1997; 44: 110-6.
36. Cook TM, Woodall N, Frerk C, Fourth National Audit Project. Major complications of airway management in the UK: results of the 4th National Audit Project of the Royal College of Anaesthetists and the Difficult Airway Society. Part 1: Anaesthesia. British Journal of Anaesthesia 2011; 106: 617-31.
37. Nishino T,. Swallowing as a protective reflex for the upper respiratory tract. Anesthesiology 1993; 79: 588-601. (Pubitemid 23263705)
38. Mathew JP, Rosenbaum SH, O'Connor T, Barash PG,. Emergency tracheal intubation in the postanesthesia care unit: physician error or patient disease? Anesthesia and Analgesia 1990; 71: 691-7.
39. Gupta RM, Parvizi J, Hanssen AD, Gay PC,. Postoperative complications in patients with obstructive sleep apnea syndrome undergoing hip or knee replacement: a case-control study. Mayo Clinic Proceedings 2001; 79: 897-905. (Pubitemid 32825911)
40. Adesanya AO, Lee W, Greilich NB, Joshi GP,. Perioperative management of obstructive sleep apnea. Chest 2010; 138: 1489-98.
41. Gross JB, Bachenberg KL, Benumof JL, et al., Practice guidelines for the perioperative management of patients with obstructive sleep apnea: a report by the American Society of Anesthesiologists Task Force on perioperative management of patients with obstructive sleep apnea. Anesthesiology 2006; 104: 1081-93.
42. Murphy GS, Brull SJ,. Residual neuromuscular block: lessons unlearned. Part I: definitions, incidence, and adverse physiologic effects of residual neuromuscular block. Anesthesia and Analgesia 2010; 111: 120-8.
43. Plaud B, Debaene B, Donati F, Marty J,. Residual paralysis after emergence from anesthesia. Anesthesiology 2010; 112: 1013-22.
44. Kluger MT, Bullock MF,. Recovery room incidents: a review of 419 reports from the Anaesthetic Incident Monitoring Study (AIMS). Anaesthesia 2002; 57: 1060-6. (Pubitemid 35282553)
45. Matadial CM, Slonin JH,. Surgery in the morbidly obese. In:, Atlee JL, eds. Complications in Anesthesia. USA: Saunders, 2006: 810-13.
46. Cook T, Frerk C,. Aspiration of gastric contents and blood. In:, Cook T, Woodall N, Frerk C, eds. Royal College of Anaesthetists. 4th National Audit Project: Major Complications of Airway Management in the UK. London: Royal College of Anaesthetists, London, 2011: 155-64.
47. Tanaka A, Isono S, Ishikawa T, Nishino T,. Laryngeal reflex before and after placement of airway interventions: endotracheal tube and laryngeal mask airway. Anesthesiology 2005; 102: 20-5. (Pubitemid 40082835)
48. Burgess GE, Cooper JR, Marino RJ, Peuler MJ, Warriner RA,. Laryngeal competence after tracheal extubation. Anesthesiology 1979; 51: 73-7. (Pubitemid 9219335)
49. Caranza R, Nandwani N, Tring JP, Thompson JP, Smith G,. Upper airway reflex sensitivity following general anaesthesia for day-case surgery. Anaesthesia 2000; 55: 367-70. (Pubitemid 30209457)
50. Larsen B, Caruso LJ, Villariet DB,. Paradoxical vocal cord motion: an often misdiagnosed cause of postoperative stridor. Journal of Clinical Anesthesia 2004; 16: 230-4. (Pubitemid 38813277)
51. Arndt GA, Voth BR,. Paradoxical vocal cord motion in the recovery room: a masquerader of pulmonary dysfunction. Canadian Journal of Anesthesia 1996; 43: 1249-51. (Pubitemid 27086661)
52. Kinghorn K, Dhamee S,. Paradoxical vocal cord motion: a postoperative dilemma - a case report. Middle East Journal of Anesthesiology 2006; 18: 1203-7.
53. Neustein SM, Taitt-Wynter LM, Rosenblatt MA,. Treating stridor with opioids: a challenging case of paradoxical vocal cord movement. Journal of Clinical Anesthesia 2010; 22: 130-1.
54. Shaha AR, Jaffe BM,. Practical management of post-thyroidectomy hematoma. Journal of Surgical Oncology 1994; 57: 235-8.
55. Rosenbaum MA, Haridas M, McHenry CR,. Life-threatening neck hematoma complicating thyroid and parathyroid surgery. American Journal of Surgery 2008; 195: 339-43. (Pubitemid 351625109)
56. Hagberg C, Georgi R, Krier C,. Complications of managing the airway. Best Practice & Research Clinical Anaesthesiology 2005; 19: 641-59. (Pubitemid 43019588)
57. Domino KB, Posner KL, Caplan RA, Cheney FW,. Airway injury during anesthesia: a closed claims analysis. Anesthesiology 1999; 91: 1703-11.
58. Sandhu GS,. Laryngeal and Esophageal Trauma. In:, Flint PW, Haughey BH, Lund VJ, et al., eds. Cummings Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery. New York: Mosby Elsevier, 2010: 933-42.
59. Barham NJ, Boomers OW, Sherry KM, Locke TJ,. Myocardial ischaemia during tracheal extubation in patients after cardiac surgery: an observational study. British Journal of Anaesthesia 1998; 80: 832-3. (Pubitemid 28282560)
60. Rose DK, Cohen MM, DeBoer DP,. Cardiovascular events in the postanesthesia care unit: contribution of risk factors. Anesthesiology 1996; 84: 772-81. (Pubitemid 26105239)
61. Wellwood M, Ayler ND, Teasdale MD, et al., Extubation and myocardial ischemia. Anesthesiology 1984; 61: A132.
62. Elia S, Liu P, Chrusciel C, Hilgenberg A, Skourtis C, Lappas D,. Effects of tracheal extubation on coronary blood flow, myocardial metabolism and systemic haemodynamic responses. Canadian Journal of Anesthesia 1989; 36: 2-8. (Pubitemid 19042874)
63. Leech P, Barker J, Fitch W,. Proceedings: changes in intracranial pressure and systemic arterial pressure during the termination of anaesthesia. British Journal of Anaesthesia 1974; 46: 315-6.
64. Glavin RJ,. Excellence in anesthesiology: the role of nontechnical skills. Anesthesiology 2009; 110: 201-3.
65. Fletcher GC, McGeorge P, Flin RH, Glavin RJ, Maran NJ,. The role of non-technical skills in anaesthesia: a review of current literature. British Journal of Anaesthesia 2002; 88: 418-29. (Pubitemid 34213591)
66. Flin R, Crichton M,. Safety at the Sharp End. A Guide to Non-Technical Skills. Farnham, Surrey: Ashgate Publishing Ltd, 2008.
67. Cooper RM,. Extubation and Changing Endotracheal Tubes. In:, Hagberg CA, eds. Benumof's Airway Management: Principles and Practice. Philadelphia: Mosby, 2007: 1164-80.
68. Calder I, Pearce A,. Basic Principles of Airway Management. In:, Calder I, Pearce A, eds. Core Topics in Airway Management. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011: 43-52.
69. Dravid R, Lee G,. Extubation and Re-Intubation Strategy. In:, Popat M, ed. Difficult Airway Management. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009: 131-44.
70. Kulkarni A, Price G, Saxena M, Skowronski G,. Difficult extubation: calming the sympathetic storm. Anaesthesia and Intensive Care 2004; 32: 413-6. (Pubitemid 38877807)
71. De Bast Y, De Backer D, Moraine JJ, Lemaire M, Vandenborght C, Vincent JL,. The cuff leak test to predict failure of tracheal extubation for laryngeal edema. Intensive Care Medicine 2002; 28: 1267-72. (Pubitemid 35025044)
72. Epstein SK,. Preventing postextubation respiratory failure. Critical Care Medicine 2006; 34: 1547-8.
73. Jaber S, Chanques G, Matecki S, et al., Post-extubation stridor in intensive care unit patients. Risk factors evaluation and importance of the cuff-leak test. Intensive Care Medicine 2003; 29: 69-74. (Pubitemid 36216385)
74. Shin SH, Heath K, Reed S, Collins J, Weireter LJ, Britt LD,. The cuff leak test is not predictive of successful extubation. American Surgeon 2008; 74: 1182-5.
75. De Backer D,. The cuff-leak test: what are we measuring? Critical Care (London, England) 2005; 9: 31-3. (Pubitemid 40246767)
76. Fisher MM, Raper RF,. The 'cuff-leak' test for extubation. Anaesthesia 1992; 47: 10-2.
77. Jubb P, Ford P,. Extubation after anaesthesia: a systematic review. (accessed 07/12/2011).
78. Bell MD,. Routine pre-oxygenation-A new 'minimum standard' of care? Anaesthesia 2004; 59: 943-5. (Pubitemid 39307227)
79. Duggan M, Kavanagh BP,. Pulmonary atelectasis: a pathogenic perioperative entity. Anesthesiology 2005; 102: 838-54.
80. Hedenstierna G, Edmark L,. Mechanisms of atelectasis in the perioperative period. Best Practice & Research Clinical Anaesthesiology 2010; 24: 157-69.
81. Lumb A,. Just a little oxygen to breathe as you go off to sleep...is it always a good idea? British Journal of Anaesthesia 2007; 99: 769-71. (Pubitemid 351773396)
82. Benoët Z, Wicky S, Fischer JF, et al., The effect of increased FIO(2) before tracheal extubation on postoperative atelectasis. Anesthesia and Analgesia 2002; 95: 1777-81. (Pubitemid 35423981)
83. Lindahl SGE, Mure M,. Dosing oxygen: a tricky matter or a piece of cake? Anesthesia and Analgesia 2002; 95: 147-3.
84. Edmark L, Kostova-Aherdan K, Enlund M, Hedenstierna G,. Optimal oxygen concentration during induction of general anesthesia. Anesthesiology 2003; 98: 28-33. (Pubitemid 36043405)
85. Hardman JG, Wills JS, Aitkenhead AR,. Factors determining the onset and course of hypoxemia during apnea: an investigation using physiological modeling. Anesthesia and Analgesia 2000; 90: 619-24. (Pubitemid 30117522)
86. Vaughan RS,. Extubation-Yesterday and today. Anaesthesia 2003; 58: 949-50. (Pubitemid 37254174)
87. Bogetz MS, Tupper BJ, Vigil AC,. Too much of a good thing: uvular trauma caused by overzealous suctioning. Anesthesia and Analgesia 1991; 72: 125-6.
88. Evans DP, Lo BM,. Uvular necrosis after orotracheal intubation. The American Journal of Emergency Medicine 2009; 27: 631.
89. Quinn A, Woodall N,. The End of Anaesthesia and Recovery. In:, Cook T, Woodall N, Frerk C, eds. 4th National Audit Project of the Royal College of Anaesthetists and the Difficult Airway Society. Major complications of airway management in the UK. London: Royal College of Anaesthetists, 2011: 62-70.
90. Clarke JP, Schuitemaker MN, Sleigh JW,. The effect of intraoperative ventilation strategies on perioperative atelectasis. Anaesthesia and Intensive Care 1998; 26: 262-6. (Pubitemid 28251917)
91. Negus B,. Gauze bite block. Anaesthesia and Intensive Care 1997; 25: 589.
92. Kojima Y, Ina H, Yokota S,. Double gauze bite block for orotracheally intubated patients. Journal of Anesthesia 2005; 19: 271-2. (Pubitemid 41086447)
93. Liu EH, Yih PS,. Negative pressure pulmonary oedema caused by biting and endotracheal tube occlusion-A case for oropharyngeal airways. Singapore Medical Journal 1999; 40: 174-5.
94. Dicpinigaitis PV, Mehta DC,. Postobstructive pulmonary edema induced by endotracheal tube occlusion. Intensive Care Medicine 1995; 21: 1048-50. (Pubitemid 26009323)
95. Patel RI, Hannallah RS, Norden J, Casey WF, Verghese ST,. Emergence airway complications in children: a comparison of tracheal extubation in awake and deeply anesthetized patients. Anesthesia and Analgesia 1991; 73: 266-70.
96. Kempen P,. Extubation in adult patients: who, what, when, where, how, and why? Journal of Clinical Anesthesia 1999; 11: 441-4.
97. Parr SM, Robinson BJ, Glover PW, Galletly DC,. Level of consciousness on arrival in the recovery room and the development of early respiratory morbidity. Anaesthesia and Intensive Care 1991; 19: 369-72.
98. Nair I, Bailey PM,. Use of the laryngeal mask for airway maintenance following tracheal extubation. Anaesthesia 1995; 50: 174-5.
99. Zalunardo MP, Zollinger A, Spahn DR, Seifert B, Pasch T,. Preoperative clonidine attenuates stress response during emergence from anesthesia. Journal of Clinical Anesthesia 2000; 12: 343-9.
100. Fuhrman TM, Ewell CL, Pippin WD, Weaver JM,. Comparison of the efficacy of esmolol and alfentanil to attenuate the hemodynamic responses to emergence and extubation. Journal of Clinical Anesthesia 1992; 4: 444-7. (Pubitemid 23010332)
101. Kovac AL, Masiongale A,. Comparison of nicardipine versus esmolol in attenuating the hemodynamic responses to anesthesia emergence and extubation. Journal of Cardiothoracic and Vascular Anesthesia 2007; 21: 45-50. (Pubitemid 46199246)
102. Bidwai AV, Bidwai VA, Rogers CR, Stanley TH,. Blood-pressure and pulse-rate responses to endotracheal extubation with and without prior injection of lidocaine. Anesthesiology 1979; 51: 171-3. (Pubitemid 9234800)
103. Arar C, Colak A, Alagol A, et al., The use of esmolol and magnesium to prevent haemodynamic responses to extubation after coronary artery grafting. European Journal of Anaesthesiology 2007; 24: 826-31. (Pubitemid 350194897)
104. Owen H,. Postextubation laryngospasm abolished by doxapram. Anaesthesia 1982; 37: 1112-4. (Pubitemid 12003137)
105. Fan T, Wang G, Mao B, et al., Prophylactic administration of parenteral steroids for preventing airway complications after extubation in adults: meta-analysis of randomised placebo controlled trials. British Medical Journal 2008; 337: a1841.
106. Epstein SK,. Corticosteroids to prevent postextubation upper airway obstruction: the evidence mounts. Critical Care (London, England) 2007; 11: 156.
107. Jaber S, Jung B, Chanques G, Bonnet F, Marret E,. Effects of steroids on reintubation and post-extubation stridor in adults: meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Critical Care (London, England) 2009; 13: R49.
108. Koga K, Asai T, Vaughan RS, Latto IP,. Respiratory complications associated with tracheal extubation. Timing of tracheal extubation and use of the laryngeal mask during emergence from anaesthesia. Anaesthesia 1998; 53: 540-4.
109. Stix MS, Borromeo CJ, Sciortino GJ, Teague PD,. Learning to exchange an endotracheal tube for a laryngeal mask prior to emergence. Canadian Journal of Anesthesia 2001; 48: 795-9. (Pubitemid 33040238)
110. Fujii Y, Toyooka H, Tanaka H,. Cardiovascular responses to tracheal extubation or LMA removal in normotensive and hypertensive patients. Canadian Journal of Anesthesia 1997; 44: 1082-6. (Pubitemid 27517500)
111. Costa e Silva L, Brimacombe JR,. Tracheal tube/laryngeal mask exchange for emergence. Anesthesiology 1996; 85: 218. (Pubitemid 26234715)
112. George SL, Blogg CE,. Role of the LMA in tracheal extubation? British Journal of Anaesthesia 1994; 72: 610.
113. Mendel P, Fredman B, White PF,. Alfentanil suppresses coughing and agitation during emergence from isoflurane anesthesia. Journal of Clinical Anesthesia 1995; 7: 114-8.
114. Nishina K, Mikawa K, Maekawa N, Obara H,. Fentanyl attenuates cardiovascular responses to tracheal extubation. Acta Anaesthesiologica Scandinavica 1995; 39: 85-9.
115. Mingo OH, Ashpole KJ, Irving CJ, Rucklidge MWM,. Remifentanil sedation for awake fibreoptic intubation with limited application of local anaesthetic in patients for elective head and neck surgery. Anaesthesia 2008; 63: 1065-9.
116. Goodman CTD, Kessell G,. Remifentanil for fibre-optic intubation: use in difficult airways. Anaesthesia 2009; 64: 220.
117. Lallo A, Billard V, Bourgain JL,. A comparison of propofol and remifentanil target-controlled infusions to facilitate fiberoptic nasotracheal intubation. Anesthesia and Analgesia 2009; 108: 852-7.
118. Rai MR, Parry TM, Dombrovskis A, Warner OJ,. Remifentanil target-controlled infusion vs propofol target-controlled infusion for conscious sedation for awake fibreoptic intubation: a double-blinded randomized controlled trial. British Journal of Anaesthesia 2008; 100: 125-30. (Pubitemid 351773407)
119. Machata AM, Illievich UM, Gustorff B, Gonano C, Fassler K, Spiss CK,. Remifentanil for tracheal tube tolerance: a case control study. Anaesthesia 2007; 62: 796-801. (Pubitemid 47103628)
120. Aouad MT, Al-Alami AA, Nasr VG, Souki FG, Zbeidy RA, Siddik-Sayyid SM,. The effect of low-dose remifentanil on responses to the endotracheal tube during emergence from general anesthesia. Anesthesia and Analgesia 2009; 108: 1157-60.
121. Lee B, Lee JR, Na S,. Targeting smooth emergence: the effect site concentration of remifentanil for preventing cough during emergence during propofol-remifentanil anaesthesia for thyroid surgery. British Journal of Anaesthesia 2009; 102: 775-8.
122. Nho JS, Lee SY, Kang JM, et al., Effects of maintaining a remifentanil infusion on the recovery profiles during emergence from anaesthesia and tracheal extubation. British Journal of Anaesthesia 2009; 103: 817-21.
123. Shajar MA, Thompson JP, Hall AP, Leslie NA, Fox AJ,. Effect of a remifentanil bolus dose on the cardiovascular response to emergence from anaesthesia and tracheal extubation. British Journal of Anaesthesia 1999; 83: 654-6. (Pubitemid 29458835)
124. Saravanan P, Marnane C, Morris EA,. Extubation of the surgically resected airway-A role for remifentanil and propofol infusions. Canadian Journal of Anesthesia 2006; 53: 507-11. (Pubitemid 44018366)
125. Lee JH, Koo BN, Jeong JJ, Kim HS, Lee JR,. Differential effects of lidocaine and remifentanil on response to the tracheal tube during emergence from general anaesthesia. British Journal of Anaesthesia 2011; 106: 410-5.
126. Muñoz HR, Guerrero ME, Brandes V, Cortínez LI,. Effect of timing of morphine administration during remifentanil-based anaesthesia on early recovery from anaesthesia and postoperative pain. British Journal of Anaesthesia 2002; 88: 814-8. (Pubitemid 34618958)
127. Cooper RM, Cohen DR,. The use of an endotracheal ventilation catheter for jet ventilation during a difficult intubation. Canadian Journal of Anesthesia 1994; 41: 1196-9.
128. Dosemeci L, Yilmaz M, Yegin A, Cengiz M, Ramazanoglu A,. The routine use of pediatric airway exchange catheter after extubation of adult patients who have undergone maxillofacial or major neck surgery: a clinical observational study. Critical Care (London, England) 2004; 8: R385-90.
129. Bedger RC, Chang JL,. A jet-stylet endotracheal catheter for difficult airway management. Anesthesiology 1987; 66: 221-3.
130. Cooper RM,. Use of an endotracheal ventilation catheter for difficult extubations. Anesthesiology 1992; 77: A1110.
131. Cooper RM,. The use of an endotracheal ventilation catheter in the management of difficult extubations. Canadian Journal of Anesthesia 1996; 43: 90-3. (Pubitemid 26068440)
132. Biro P, Priebe HJ,. Staged extubation strategy: is an airway exchange catheter the answer? Anesthesia and Analgesia 2007; 105: 1182-5. (Pubitemid 350303913)
133. Baraka AS,. Tension pneumothorax complicating jet ventilation via a cook airway exchange catheter. Anesthesiology 1999; 91: 557-8. (Pubitemid 29365040)
134. Benumof JL,. Airway exchange catheters: simple concept, potentially great danger. Editorial views. Anesthesiology 1999; 91: 342-4. (Pubitemid 29365014)
135. Determination of Sherriff Linda Margaret Ruxton in fatal accident inquiry into the death of Gordon Ewing. (accessed 07/12/2011).
136. Duggan LV, Law JA, Murphy MF,. Brief review: supplementing oxygen through an airway exchange catheter: efficacy, complications, and recommendations. Canadian Journal of Anesthesia 2011; 58: 560-8.
137. Mort TC,. Continuous airway access for the difficult extubation: the efficacy of the airway exchange catheter. Anesthesia and Analgesia 2007; 105: 1357-62. (Pubitemid 350303941)
138. Loudermilk EP, Hartmannsgruber M, Stoltzfus DP, Langevin PB,. A prospective study of the safety of tracheal extubation using a pediatric airway exchange catheter for patients with a known difficult airway. Chest 1997; 111: 1660-5. (Pubitemid 27260099)
139. Mort TC,. Tracheal tube exchange: feasibility of continuous glottic viewing with advanced laryngoscopy assistance. Anesthesia and Analgesia 2009; 108: 1228-31.
140. Ho AM, Dion PW, Karmarkar MK, Chung DC, Tay BA,. Use of heliox in critical upper airway obstruction. Physical and physiologic considerations in choosing the optimal helium:oxygen mix. Resuscitation 2002; 52: 297-300. (Pubitemid 34211989)
141. Solomons NB, Livesey JR,. Acute upper airway obstruction following Teflon injection of a vocal cord; the value of nebulized adrenaline and a helium/oxygen mixture in its management. Journal of Laryngology and Otology 1990; 104: 654-5. (Pubitemid 20263936)
142. Candido KD, Saatee S, Appavu SK, Khorasani A,. Revisiting the ASA guidelines for management of a difficult airway. Anesthesiology 2000; 93: 295-8. (Pubitemid 30436711)
143. Haridas RP,. Jet ventilation through jet stylets. Anesthesiology 2000; 93: 295.
144. Cook TM, Woodall N, Harper J, Benger J, Fourth National Audit Project. Major complications of airway management in the UK: results of the Fourth National Audit Project of the Royal College of Anaesthetists and the Difficult Airway Society. Part 2: intensive care and emergency departments. British Journal of Anaesthesia 2011; 106: 632-42.
145. Ryan JC, McGuire B,. Role of cricothyroid cannulation in head and neck surgery. Journal of Laryngology and Otology 2008; 122: 1096-9.
146. Association of Anaesthetists Great Britain and Ireland. Immediate post-anaesthetic recovery. (accessed 07/12/2011).
147. Association of Anaesthetists Great Britain and Ireland. Recommendations for standards of monitoring during anaesthesia and recovery 4th edition. (accessed 07/12/2011).
148. Vimlati L, Gilsanz F, Goldik Z,. Quality and safety guidelines of postanaesthesia care: working party on post anaesthesia care (approved by the European Board and Section of Anaesthesiology, Union Européenne des Médecins Spécialistes). European Journal of Anaesthesiology 2009; 26: 715-21.
149. O'Sullivan E, Laffey J, Pandit JJ,. A rude awakening after our fourth 'NAP': lessons for airway management. Anaesthesia 2011; 66: 331-4.
150. Whitaker DK,. Time for capnography-everywhere. Anaesthesia 2011; 66: 544-9.
151. Hutton P, Clutton-Brock T,. The benefits and pitfalls of pulse oximetry. British Medical Journal 1993; 307: 457-8. (Pubitemid 23242093)
152. Davidson JA, Hosie HE,. Limitations of pulse oximetry: respiratory insufficiency-A failure of detection. British Medical Journal 1993; 307: 372-3. (Pubitemid 23224199)
153. Fu ES, Downs JB, Schweiger JW, Miguel RV, Smith RA,. Supplemental oxygen impairs detection of hypoventilation by pulse oximetry. Chest 2004; 126: 1552-8. (Pubitemid 39525030)
154. Farmery AD,. Physiology of Apnoea and Hypoxia. In:, Calder I, eds. Core Topics in Airway Management. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011: 9-18.
155. François B, Bellissant E, Gissot V, et al., 12-h pretreatment with methylprednisolone versus placebo for prevention of postextubation laryngeal oedema: a randomised double-blind trial. Lancet 2007; 369: 1083-9. (Pubitemid 46505164)
156. Darmon JY, Rauss A, Dreyfuss D, et al., Evaluation of risk factors for laryngeal edema after tracheal extubation in adults and its prevention by dexamethasone. A placebo-controlled, double-blind, multicenter study. Anesthesiology 1992; 77: 245-51.
157. Boorstein JM, Boorstein SM, Humphries GN, Johnston CC,. Using helium-oxygen mixtures in the emergency management of acute upper airway obstruction. Annals of Emergency Medicine 1989; 18: 688-90. (Pubitemid 19140884)
158. Diehl J-I, Peigne V, Guerot E, Faisy C, Lecourt L, Mercat A,. Helium in the adult critical care setting. Annals of Intensive Care 2011; 1: 24.
159. Jaber S, Carlucci A, Boussarsar M, et al., Helium-oxygen in the postextubation period decreases inspiratory effort. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine 2001; 164: 633-7. (Pubitemid 32801668)
160. Skrinskas GJ, Hyland RH, Hutcheon MA,. Using helium-oxygen mixtures in the management of acute upper airway obstruction. Canadian Medical Association Journal 1983; 128: 555-8. (Pubitemid 13156531)
161. Barron FA, Ball DR, Jefferson P, Norrie J,. 'Airway Alerts'. How UK anaesthetists organise, document and communicate difficult airway management. Anaesthesia 2003; 58: 73-7. (Pubitemid 36113333)
162. Difficult Airway Society. Airway alert form. (accessed 07/12/ 2011).
163. Roche N, Durieux P,. Clinical practice guidelines: from methodological to practical issues. Intensive Care Medicine 1994; 20: 593-601. (Pubitemid 24364941)
164. Cook DJ, Greengold NL, Ellrodt AG, Weingarten SR,. The relation between systematic reviews and practice guidelines. Annals of Internal Medicine 1997; 127: 210-6. (Pubitemid 27332540)
165. Woolf SH, Grol R, Hutchinson A, Eccles M, Grimshaw J,. Clinical guidelines: potential benefits, limitations, and harms of clinical guidelines. British Medical Journal 1999; 318: 527-30. (Pubitemid 29189000)
166. Sigurdsson GH, McAteer E,. Morbidity and mortality associated with anaesthesia. Acta Anaesthesiologica Scandinavica 1996; 40: 1057-63. (Pubitemid 26335789)
167. Armitage M, Flanagan D,. Improving quality measures in the emergency services. Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine 2001; 94: S39.
168. Sanders AB,. The development of AHA (American Heart Association) guidelines for emergency cardiac care. Respiratory Care 1995; 40: 338-44.
169. Thomas RD, Waites JH, Hubbard WN, Wicks M,. Cardiopulmonary resuscitation in a district general hospital: increased success over 7 years. Archives of Emergency Medicine 1990; 7: 200-5.
170. McGowan J, Graham CA, Gordon MW,. Appointment of a Resuscitation Training Officer is associated with improved survival from in-hospital ventricular fibrillation/ventricular tachycardia cardiac arrest. Resuscitation 1999; 41: 169-73. (Pubitemid 30066468)
171. Helmreich RL,. On error management: lessons from aviation. British Medical Journal 2000; 320: 781-5. (Pubitemid 30179433)
172. Westrum R,. Human factors experts beginning to focus on organizational factors in safety. International Civil Aviation Organization Journal 1996; 51: 6-8.
173. O'Connor T, Papanikolaou V, Keogh I,. Safe surgery, the human factors approach. The Surgeon: Journal of the Royal Colleges of Surgeons of Edinburgh and Ireland 2010; 8: 93-5.
174. Visvanathan T, Kluger MT, Webb RK, Westhorpe RN,. Crisis management during anaesthesia: laryngospasm. Quality and Safety in Health Care 2005; 14: e3.
175. Bhananker SM, Ramamoorthy C, Geiduschek JM, et al., Anesthesia-related cardiac arrest in children: update from the Pediatric Perioperative Cardiac Arrest Registry. Anesthesia and Analgesia 2007; 105: 344-50. (Pubitemid 47196409)
176. Tsui BC, Wagner A, Cave D, Elliott C, El-Hakim H, Malherbe S,. The
177. Koç C, Kocaman F, Aygenç E, Ozdem C, Cekiç A,. The use of preoperative lidocaine to prevent stridor and laryngospasm after tonsillectomy and adenoidectomy. Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery 1998; 118: 880-2. (Pubitemid 28307485)
178. Aviv JE, Sanders I, Silva D, Kraus WM, Wu BL, Biller HF,. Overcoming laryngospasm by electrical stimulation of the posterior cricoarytenoid muscle. Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery 1989; 100: 110-8. (Pubitemid 19080002)
179. Kollef MH, Pluss J,. Noncardiogenic pulmonary edema following upper airway obstruction. 7 cases and a review of the literature. Medicine (Baltimore) 1991; 70: 91-8.
180. McConkey PP,. Postobstructive pulmonary oedema-A case series and review. Anaesthesia and Intensive Care 2000; 28: 72-6. (Pubitemid 30093297)
181. Krodel DJ, Bittner EA, Abdulnour R, Brown R, Eikermann M,. Case scenario: acute postoperative negative pressure pulmonary edema. Anesthesiology 2010; 113: 200-7.
182. Minogue SC, Ralph J, Lampa MJ,. Laryngotracheal topicalization with lidocaine before intubation decreases the incidence of coughing on emergence from general anesthesia. Anesthesia and Analgesia 2004; 99: 1253-7. (Pubitemid 39287427)
183. Gonzalez RM, Bjerke RJ, Drobycki T, et al., Prevention of endotracheal tube-induced coughing during emergence from general anesthesia. Anesthesia and Analgesia 1994; 79: 792-5. (Pubitemid 24307165)
184. Oberer C, von Ungern-Sternberg BS, Frei FJ, Erb TO,. Respiratory reflex responses of the larynx differ between sevoflurane and propofol in pediatric patients. Anesthesiology 2005; 103: 1142-8. (Pubitemid 41692496)
185. Hohlrieder M, Tiefenthaler W, Klaus H, et al., Effect of total intravenous anaesthesia and balanced anaesthesia on the frequency of coughing during emergence from the anaesthesia. British Journal of Anaesthesia 2007; 99: 587-91. (Pubitemid 47412507)
186. Valley RD, Freid EB, Bailey AG, et al., Tracheal extubation of deeply anesthetized pediatric patients: a comparison of desflurane and sevoflurane. Anesthesia and Analgesia 2003; 96: 1320-4. (Pubitemid 36512868)
187. McKay RE, Bostrom A, Balea MC, McKay WR,. Airway responses during desflurane versus sevoflurane administration via a laryngeal mask airway in smokers. Anesthesia and Analgesia 2006; 103: 1147-54. (Pubitemid 44627338)
188. Arain SR, Shankar H, Ebert TJ,. Desflurane enhances reactivity during the use of the laryngeal mask airway. Anesthesiology 2005; 103: 495-9. (Pubitemid 41243410)
189. Gulhas N, Durmus M, Demirbilek S, Togal T, Ozturk E, Ersoy MO,. The use of magnesium to prevent laryngospasm after tonsillectomy and adenoidectomy: a preliminary study. Pediatric Anesthesia 2003; 13: 43-7. (Pubitemid 36114999)
190. Lee CK, Chien TJ, Hsu JC, et al., The effect of acupuncture on the incidence of postextubation laryngospasm in children. Anaesthesia 1998; 53: 917-20. (Pubitemid 28431603)
191. Brock-Utne JG,. Biting on ET tubes. Anaesthesia and Intensive Care 1997; 25: 309.
192. Glasser SA, Siler JN,. Delayed onset of laryngospasm-induced pulmonary edema in an adult outpatient. Anesthesiology 1985; 62: 370-1.
193. Tami TA, Chu F, Wildes TO, Kaplan M,. Pulmonary edema and acute upper airway obstruction. Laryngoscope 1986; 96: 506-9. (Pubitemid 16063303)
194. Oswalt CE, Gates GA, Holmstrom MG,. Pulmonary edema as a complication of acute airway obstruction. Journal of the American Medical Association 1977; 238: 1833-5. (Pubitemid 8218704)
195. Fremont RD, Kallet RH, Matthay MA, Ware LB,. Postobstructive pulmonary edema: a case for hydrostatic mechanisms. Chest 2007; 131: 1742-6. (Pubitemid 46981628)
196. Hakim TS, van der Zee H, Malik AB,. Effects of sympathetic nerve stimulation on lung fluid and protein exchange. Journal of Applied Physiology: Respiratory, Environmental and Exercise Physiology 1979; 47: 1025-30. (Pubitemid 10213327)
197. Thiagarajan RR, Laussen PC,. Negative pressure pulmonary edema in children - pathogenesis and clinical management. Pediatric Anesthesia 2007; 17: 307-10. (Pubitemid 46365129)
198. Hopkins SR, Schoene RB, Henderson WR, Spragg RG, Martin TR, West JB,. Intense exercise impairs the integrity of the pulmonary blood-gas barrier in elite athletes. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine 1997; 155: 1090-4. (Pubitemid 27133429)
199. Koh MS, Hsu AA, Eng P,. Negative pressure pulmonary oedema in the medical intensive care unit. Intensive Care Medicine 2003; 29: 1601-4. (Pubitemid 37153609)
200. Pelosi P, Jaber S,. Noninvasive respiratory support in the perioperative period. Current Opinion in Anesthesiology 2010; 23: 233-8.