A gender gap in policy representation in the U.S. congress?

Legislative Studies Quarterly

Volumn 37, Issue 1, 2012, Pages 35-66

  Griffin, John D ^a   Newman, Brian ^b   Wolbrecht, Christina ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF NOTRE DAME   (United States)

^b PEPPERDINE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84856292974     PISSN: 03629805     EISSN: 19399162     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1939-9162.2011.00034.x     Document Type: Article

References (70)

1. Achen, Christopher,. 1978. "Measuring Representation. American Journal of Political Science 22 (3): 475-510.
2. Alvarez, R. Michael, and, John Brehm,. 1995. "American Ambivalence Towards Abortion Policy: Development of a Heteroskedastic Probit Model of Competing Values. American Journal of Political Science 39 (November): 1055-82.
3. Amer, Mildred L., 2004. "Black Members of the United States Congress: 1870-2004." Washington, DC: Library of Congress, Congressional Research Service.
4. Andersen, Kristi,. 1997. "Gender and Public Opinion." In Understanding Public Opinion, ed., Barbara Norrander, and, Clyde Wilcox,. Washington, DC: CQ Press, 19-36.
5. Bartels, Larry M., 1998. "Where the Ducks Are: Voting Power in a Party System." In Politicians and Party Politics, ed., John Geer,. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 43-79.
6. Bartels, Larry M., 2008. Unequal Democracy: The Political Economy of the New Gilded Age. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
7. Bullock, Charles S. III, and, David W. Brady,. 1983. "Party, Constituency, and Roll-Call Voting in the U.S. Senate. Legislative Studies Quarterly 8 (1): 29-43.
8. Burden, Barry C., 2004. "A Technique for Estimating Candidate and Voter Locations. Electoral Studies 23 (4): 623-39. (Pubitemid 39443875)
9. Burrell, Barbara C., 1994. A Woman's Place Is in the House: Campaigning for Congress in the Feminist Era. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
10. Burns, Nancy, Kay Lehman Schlozman, and, Sidney Verba,. 2001. The Private Roots of Public Action: Gender, Equality, and Political Participation. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
11. Campbell, Andrea L., 2003. How Policies Make Citizens: Senior Political Activism and the American Welfare State. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
12. Campbell, David E., and, Christina Wolbrecht,. 2006. "See Jane Run: Women Politicians as Role Models for Adolescents. Journal of Politics 68 (May): 233-47. (Pubitemid 43667563)
13. Canon, David T., 1999. Race, Redistricting, and Representation: The Unintended Consequences of Black Majority Districts. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
14. Carroll, Susan J., 2002. "Representing Women: Congresswomen's Perceptions of Their Representational Roles." In Women Transforming Congress, ed., Cindy Simon Rosenthal,. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 50-68.
15. Chaney, Carole, Kennedy R. Michael Alvarez, and, Jonathan Nagler,. 1998. "Explaining the Gender Gap in U.S. Presidential Elections, 1980-1992. Political Research Quarterly 51 (June): 311-39. (Pubitemid 128342524)
16. Clark, Janet., 1998. "Women at the National Level: An Update on Roll Call Voting Behavior." In Women and Elective Office: Past, Present, and Future, ed., Sue Thomas, and, Clyde Wilcox,. New York: Oxford University Press, 118-29.
17. Clinton, Joshua D., 2006. "Representation in Congress: Constituents and Roll Calls in the 106th House. Journal of Politics 68 (May): 397-409. (Pubitemid 43667576)
18. Dahl, Robert A., 2006. On Political Equality. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
19. Dodson, Debra L., 2006. The Impact of Women in Congress. New York: Oxford University Press.
20. Dovi, Suzanne., 2002. "Preferable Descriptive Representatives: Will Just Any Woman, Black, or Latino Do?" American Political Science Review 96 (December): 729-43.
21. Eichenberg, Richard C., 2003. "Gender Differences in Public Attitudes toward the Use of Force by the United States, 1990-2003. International Security 28 (Summer): 110-41. (Pubitemid 37195232)
22. Eulau, Heinz, John C. Wahlke, William Buchanan, and, Leroy C. Ferguson,. 1959. "The Role of the Representative: Some Empirical Observations on the Theory of Edmund Burke. American Political Science Review 53 (3): 742-56.
23. Evans, Jocelyn Jones,. 2005. Women, Partisanship, and the Congress. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
24. Fenno, Richard E. Jr., 1978. Home Style: House Members in their Districts. New York: HarperCollins.
25. Fiorina, Morris P., 1974. Representatives, Roll Calls, and Constituencies. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books.
26. Fiorina, Morris P., with, Samuel J. Abrams, and, Jeremy C. Pope,. 2005. Culture War? The Myth of Polarized America. New York: Pearson Longman.
27. Ford, Lynne E., 2006. Women and Politics: The Pursuit of Equality. 2d ed. New York: Houghton Mifflin.
28. Gerber, Elizabeth R., and, Jeffrey B. Lewis,. 2004. "Beyond the Median: Voter Preferences, District Heterogeneity, and Political Representation. Journal of Political Economy 112 (December): 1364-83. (Pubitemid 40106866)
29. Gilens, Martin,. 2005. "Inequality and Democratic Responsiveness. Public Opinion Quarterly 69 (5): 778-96. (Pubitemid 43007153)
30. Griffin, John D., and, Brian Newman,. 2005. "Are Voters Better Represented ?" Journal of Politics 67 (November): 1206-27.
31. Griffin, John D., and, Brian Newman,. 2008. Minority Report: Evaluating Political Equality in America. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
32. Hajnal, Zoltan, Elisabeth Gerber, and, Hugh Louch,. 2002. "Minorities and Direct Legislation: Evidence from California Ballot Propositions. Journal of Politics 64 (1): 154-77.
33. Hall, Richard L., 1996. Participation in Congress. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
34. Hawkesworth, Mary,. 2003. "Congressional Enactments of Race-Gender: Toward a Theory of Race-Gendered Institutions. American Political Science Review 97 (November): 529-50. (Pubitemid 37537548)
35. Hawkesworth, Mary, Kathleen J. Casey, Krista Jenkins, and, Katherine E. Kleeman,. 2001. Legislating By and For Women: A Comparison of the 103rd and 104th Congresses. New Brunswick, NJ: Center for American Women and Politics.
36. Heinz, John P., Edward O. Laumann, Robert L. Nelson, and, Robert H. Salisbury,. 1993. The Hollow Core: Private Interests in National Policy Making. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
37. Howell, Susan E., and, Christine L. Day,. 2000. "Complexities of the Gender Gap. Journal of Politics 62 (August): 858-74.
38. Jacobs, Lawrence R., and, Benjamin I. Page,. 2005. "Who Influences U.S. Foreign Policy?" American Political Science Review 99 (1): 107-23.
39. Johnson, Cathy Marie, Georgia Duerst-Lahti, and, Noelle H. Norton,. 2006. Creating Gender: The Sexual Politics of Welfare Policy. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner.
40. Kaufmann, Karen M., and, John R. Petrocik,. 1999. "The Changing Politics of American Men: Understanding the Sources of the Gender Gap. American Journal of Political Science 43 (July): 864-87.
41. Kedrowski, Karen M., and, Marilyn Stine Sarow,. 2002. "The Gendering of Cancer Policy: Media Advocacy and Congressional Policy Attention." In Women Transforming Congress, ed., Cindy Simon Rosenthal,. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 240-59.
42. Key, V.O., 1961. Public Opinion and American Democracy. New York: Knopf.
43. Mansbridge, Jane J., 1985. "Myth and Realitya-The ERA and the Gender Gap in the 1980 Election. Public Opinion Quarterly 49 (2): 164-78.
44. Mansbridge, Jane J., 1999. "Should Blacks Represent Blacks and Women Represent Women? A Contingent 'Yes.'" Journal of Politics 61 (August): 628-57.
45. McCarty, Nolan M., Keith T. Poole, and, Howard Rosenthal,. 1997. Income Distribution and the Realignment of American Politics. Washington, DC: American Enterprise Institute.
46. Miller, Warren E., 1964. "Majority Rule and the Representative System of Government." In Cleavages, Ideologies, and Party Systems, ed., Erik Allardt, and, Yrjo Littunen,. Transactions of the Westermarck Society, 343-76.
47. Miller, Warren E., and, Donald E. Stokes,. 1963. "Constituency Influence in Congress. American Political Science Review 57 (March): 45-56.
48. Page, Benjamin I., and, Robert Y. Shapiro,. 1992. The Rational Public: Fifty Years of Trends in Americans' Policy Preferences. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
49. Palmer, Barbara, and, Dennis Simon,. 2006. Breaking the Political Glass Ceiling: Women and Congressional Elections. New York: Routledge.
50. Pitkin, Hanna Fenichel,. 1967. The Concept of Representation. Berkeley: University of California Press.
51. Powell, Lynda W., 1982. "Issue Representation in Congress. Journal of Politics 44 (3): 658-78.
52. Phillips, Anne,. 1995. The Politics of Presence. New York: Clarendon Press.
53. Reingold, Beth,. 2008. "Women as Office Holders: Linking Descriptive and Substantive Representation." In Political Women and American Democracy: Critical Perspectives on Women and Politics Research, ed., Christina Wolbrecht, Karen Beckwith, and, Lisa Baldez,. New York: Cambridge University Press, 128-47.
54. Romer, Daniel, Kate Kenski, Paul Waldman, Christopher Adasiewicz, and, Kathleen Hall Jamieson,. 2004. Capturing Campaign Dynamics: The National Annenberg Election Survey Design, Method, and Data. New York: Oxford University Press.
55. Sanbonmatsu, Kira,. 2008. "Representation by Gender and Parties." In Political Women and American Democracy: Critical Perspectives on Women and Politics Research, ed., Christina Wolbrecht, Karen Beckwith, and, Lisa Baldez,. New York: Cambridge University Press, 96-109.
56. Sapiro, Virginia,. 2002. "It's the Context, Situation, and Question, Stupid: The Gender Basis of Public Opinion." In Understanding Public Opinion, 2d ed, ed., Barbara Norrander, and, Clyde Wilcox,. Washington, DC: CQ Press, 21-40.
57. Schlesinger, Mark, and, Caroline Heldman,. 2001. "Gender Gap or Gender Gaps? New Perspectives on Support for Government Action and Policies. Journal of Politics 63 (1): 59-92.
58. Seltzer, Richard A., Jody Newman, and, Melissa Voorhees Leighton,. 1997. Sex as a Political Variable: Women as Candidates and Voters in U.S. Elections. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers.
59. Simon, Dennis M., and, Barbara Palmer,. 2010. "The Roll Call Behavior of Men and Women in the U.S. House of Representatives, 1937-2008. Politics & Gender 6 (2): 225-46.
60. Shapiro, Robert Y., and, Harpreet Mahajan,. 1986. "Gender Differences in Policy Preferences: A Summary of Trends from the 1960s to the 1980s. Public Opinion Quarterly 50 (1): 42-61.
61. Swers, Michele L., 2002. The Difference Women Make: The Policy Impact of Women in Congress. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
62. Swers, Michele L., 1998. "Are Women More Likely to Vote for Women's Issue Bills than Their Male Colleagues ?" Legislative Studies Quarterly 23 (August): 435-48. (Pubitemid 128462404)
63. Tate, Katherine,. 2003. Black Faces in the Mirror: African Americans and their Representatives in the U.S. Congress. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
64. Thomas, Sue,. 1994. How Women Legislate. New York: Oxford University Press.
65. Verba, Sidney,. 2003. "Would the Dream of Political Equality Turn Out to Be a Nightmare?" Perspectives on Politics 1 (4): 663-80.
66. Walsh, Katherine Cramer,. 2002. "Enlarging Representation: Women Bringing Marginalized Perspectives to Floor Debate in the House of Representatives." In Women Transforming Congress, ed., Cindy Simon Rosenthal,. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 370-96.
67. Weissberg, Robert,. 1978. "Collective vs. Dyadic Representation in Congress. American Political Science Review 72 (June): 535-47.
68. Welch, Susan,. 1985. "Are Women More Liberal than Men in the U.S. Congress?" Legislative Studies Quarterly 10 (1): 125-34.
69. Wolbrecht, Christina,. 2002. "Female Legislators and the Women's Rights Agenda: From Feminine Mystique to Feminist Era." In Women Transforming Congress, ed., Cindy Simon Rosenthal,. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 170-239.
70. Wright, Gerald C. Jr,. 1978. "Candidates' Policy Positions and Voting in U. S. Congressional Elections. Legislative Studies Quarterly 3 (3): 445-64.