Peace before freedom: Diplomacy and repression in Sadat's Egypt

Political Science Quarterly

Volumn 126, Issue 4, 2011, Pages 641-668

  Brownlee, Jason ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84855847026     PISSN: 00323195     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1002/j.1538-165X.2011.tb00715.x     Document Type: Article

References (275)

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3. Timothy Garton Ash, The File: A Personal History (London: Harper Collins, 1998), 84.
4. Some of Mubarak's critics go so far as to say he has turned Egypt into a "police state."
5. See, for example, Saad Eddin Ibrahim, "Egypt's Unchecked Repression," The Washington Post, 21 August 2007, and the columns of Egyptian editor Ibrahim Eissa.
6. The current article refrains from this categorical charge, while documenting a considerable increase in domestic coercion. Internal security within Egypt, even at its most repressive under Nasser, has not atomized public life in the manner of classic police states
7. Miles Copeland, The Game of Nations: The Amorality of Power Politics (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1969), 106.
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10. Methodologically, this project takes cues from exemplary studies of transnational politics, including Melani McAlister, Epic Encounters: Culture, Media, and U.S. Interests in the Middle East since 1945 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001)
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21. For recent examples, see Virginia Fortna, "Scraps of Paper? Agreements and the Durability of Peace," International Organization 57 (Spring 2003): 337-372
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25. For more on the relationship between internal Egyptian politics and Sadat's international negotiations
26. see Shibley Telhami, Power and Leadership in International Bargaining: The Path to the Camp David Accords (New York: Columbia University Press, 1990).
27. See, among others, Holger Albrecht and Oliver Schlumberger, "'Waiting for Godot': Regime Change without Democratization in the Middle East," International Political Science Review, 25 (October 2004): 373
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29. Mustapha K. Al-Sayyid, "Slow Thaw in the Arab World," World Policy Journal 8 (Fall 1991): 712
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35. Bellin, "The Robustness of Authoritarianism in the Middle East," 143.
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41. GAO, "Security Assistance," 17.
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43. Human Rights Watch, "US/Jordan: Stop Renditions to Torture," 7 April 2008
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45. Qandil, Al ayam al akhirah, 11-13.
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48. Maye Kassem, In the Guise of Democracy: Governance in Contemporary Egypt (Reading: Ithaca Press, 1999), 48-49
49. Eberhard Kienle, A Grand Delusion: Democracy and Economic Reform in Egypt (New York: I.B. Tauris), 90
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51. Michael T. Klare, Supplying Repression (New York: Field Foundation, 1977)
52. Noam Chomsky and Edward S. Herman, The Political Economy of Human Rights, vol. 1 (Boston, MA: South End Press, 1979)
53. Michael T. Klare and Cynthia Arnson, Supplying Repression: U.S. Support for Authoritarian Regimes Abroad (Washington, DC: Institute for Policy Studies, 1981).
54. During this era, aid to governments of Latin America and Asia, including the defunct South Vietnamese state, loomed large.
55. When Chomsky and Herman diagrammed the recipients of U.S. patronage, Latin American and East Asian countries made up 18 of the 26 client states and accounted for nearly three-quarters of military assistance.
56. To the extent that Middle Eastern governments entered the framework, it was Iran and Saudi Arabia, not Egypt, that drew attention. For more recent treatments of the same period and countries
57. Greg Grandin, Empire's Workshop: Latin America, the United States, and the Rise of the New Imperialism (New York: Metropolitan Books, 2006)
58. Jeremy Kuzmarov, "Modernizing Repression: Police Training, Political Violence and Nation-Building in the 'American Century,'" Diplomatic History (April 2009): 191-221.
59. On this turn see, Michael Hudson, "After the Gulf War: Prospects for Democratization in the Arab World," Middle East Journal 45 (Summer 1991): 408.
60. Chomsky and Herman, The Political Economy of Human Rights, 42.
61. Zbigniew Brzezinski, Power and Principle: Memoirs of the National Security Advisor, 1977-1981 (New York: Farrar, Straus, Giroux, 1983), 234.
62. The production of repression in Egypt also fed back into politics within the United States. Egypt would become an exemplar in the "war on terrorism." Such aspects of the U.S.-Egyptian relationship fall beyond the scope of the present article, which traces one branch in a genealogy of repression, as it stemmed from U.S., Egyptian, and Israeli actors.
63. "Kalamat al ra'is Muhammad Anwar al Sadat al jumhuriyyah illa al shàb bàd tarshihhi li mansib ra'is li fatrat al ri'asah al qadamah," 25 August 1976, accessed at http://sadat.bibalex.org/Speeches/browser.aspx?SID5488, 16 July 2010.
64. Mark N. Cooper, The Transformation of Egypt (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1982), 128
65. Mohammed El Sayed Said, Al-intiqal al-dimuqrati al-muhtajaz fi Misr [The blocked democratic transition in Egypt] (Cairo: Merit, 2006), 8.
66. Kirk Beattie, Egypt During the Nasser Years (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1994), 122-123.
67. Raymond William Baker, Egypt's Uncertain Revolution under Nasser and Sadat (Boston, MA: Harvard University Press, 1978), 99.
68. Owen Sirrs, History of the Egyptian Intelligence Services (New York: Routlege, 2010), 59-60, 72, 84, 87.
69. Copeland, The Game of Nations, 89.
70. Beattie, Egypt During the Nasser Years, 212
71. Sirrs, History of the Egyptian Intelligence Services, 106.
72. "Kalamat Gamal Abdel-Nasser fi iftitah dawr al in'iqad al khamis li majlis al ummah," 23 November 1967, accessed at http://nasser.bibalex.org/Speeches/browser.aspx?SID51224, 15 July 2010.
73. Beattie, Egypt During the Nasser Years, 214-215
74. El-Sayed Said, Al-intiqal al-dimuqrati al-muhtajaz fi Misr, 6.
75. Ahmed Abdalla, The Student Movement and National Politics in Egypt (London: Al Saqi Books, 1985), 149-153.
76. "Bayan ra'is Gamal Abdel Nasser illa al ummah: Bayan March 30," 30 March 1968, accessed at http://nasser.bibalex.org/Speeches/browser.aspx?SID51234, 15 July 2010.
77. Cooper, Transformation of Egypt, 54-55.
78. Sirrs, History of the Egyptian Intelligence Services, 112-113.
79. Anwar el-Sadat, In Search of Identity: An Autobiography (New York: Harper & Row, 1978), 209.
80. El-Sayed Said, Al-intiqal al-dimuqrati al-muhtajaz fi Misr, 6.
81. R. Hrair Dekmejian, Egypt Under Nasir: A Study in Political Dynamics (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1971), 309
82. Ahmad Hamrush, Thawrat 23 yulyu al-juz al-thalith (Cairo: Al-he'a al-misriya al-a'ma li al-kitab, 1993), 246.
83. Saad Eddin Ibrahim, "Domestic Developments in Egypt,"
84. William B. Quandt, ed., The Middle East: Ten Years after Camp David (Washington, DC: Brookings Institute, 1988), 24
85. Cooper, Transformation of Egypt, 140.
86. Sadat, In Search of Identity, 224.
87. Nathan Brown, The Rule of Law in the Arab World: Courts in Egypt and the Gulf (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1997), 95-96
88. Tamir Moustafa, The Struggle for Constitutional Power: Law, Politics, and Economic Development in Egypt (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007), 69-74
89. El-Sayed Said, Al-intiqal al-dimuqrati al-muhtajaz fi Misr, 7.
90. Patrick Seale, Asad: The Struggle for the Middle East (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1988).
91. Joe Stork, "Bailing out Sadat," MERIP Reports 56 (April 1977)
92. Jeremy M. Sharp, "Egypt: Background and U.S. Relations," CRS Report for Congress, 26 March 2009, 31-32.
93. Anwar Sadat, "Tasks of the Stage: Or a Comprehensive Civilisation Strategy," April 1974, available at http://sadat.umd.edu/archives/written_works.htm, accessed 10 October 2011, 54
94. Baker, Egypt's Uncertain Revolution, 135
95. Cooper, Transformation of Egypt, 89.
96. Baker, Egypt's Uncertain Revolution, 144-145.
97. Cooper, Transformation of Egypt, 109.
98. Stork, "Bailing out Sadat."
99. "Soviet-Egyptian Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation," 27 May 1981, English translation, reproduced at the National Archives, accessed at http://www.sadat.umd.edu/archives/correspondence/AAAC%20Egyptian-Soviet%20Friendship%20Treaty%205.27.71.pdf, 19 January 2010
100. Joe Stork, "The Carter Doctrine and US Bases in the Middle East," Merip Reports (September 1980), 29.
101. Baker, Egypt's Uncertain Revolution, 139-140.
102. Ibrahim, "Domestic Developments in Egypt," 26.
103. Baker, Egypt's Uncertain Revolution, 138.
104. "Chronology November 16, 1973-February 15, 1974," Middle East Journal 28 (Spring 1974): 160
105. "Chronology August 16, 1975-November 15, 1975," Middle East Journal 30 (Winter 1976): 64.
106. Ali Eddin Melal Dessouki, "Egyptian Foreign Policy since Camp David,"
107. Quandt, ed., The Middle East, 96.
108. Abdel Monem Said Aly, "Egypt: A Decade after Camp David,"
109. Quandt, ed., The Middle East, 71.
110. Ibrahim, "Domestic Developments in Egypt," 27.
111. Baker, Egypt's Uncertain Revolution, 142.
112. Cooper, Transformation of Egypt, 107.
113. Ibid., 118-119.
114. Ibid., 115.
115. Baker, Egypt's Uncertain Revolution, 167.
116. Ibid., 168.
117. Stork, "The Carter Doctrine," 29.
118. Mohammed Heikal, Autumn of Fury: The Assassination of Sadat (London: Andre Deutsch, 1983)
119. Ibrahim, "Domestic Developments in Egypt," 25.
120. Cooper, Transformation of Egypt, 122.
121. Kirk J. Beattie, Egypt during the Sadat Years (New York: Palgrave, 2000), 311 ff. 315.
122. Baker, Egypt's Uncertain Revolution, 165-167.
123. Cooper, Transformation of Egypt, 236.
124. Cooper, Transformation of Egypt, 240.
125. Baker, Egypt's Uncertain Revolution, 166.
126. Joe Stork and Danny Reachard, "Chronology: U.S.-Egypt Military Relationship" MERIP Reports (September 1980), 27
127. Cooper, Transformation of Egypt, 236
128. Beattie, Egypt during the Sadat Years, 208.
129. Beattie, Egypt during the Sadat Years, 213.
130. "kalamat al ràis anwar al-sadat fi liqa'ihi bi àdaa' al majles al ùliya li al jamàat" [Speech of President Anwar al-Sadat in his meeting with the members of the higher council for univerities], 30 January 1977, accessed at http://sadat.bibalex.org/speeches/browser.aspx?SID5539, 29 January 2010.
131. "al ra'is anwar al-sadat yàlan fi khitab ham li al shàb:," Al-Akhbar, 4 February 1977, 3-4, 7
132. Marie-Christine Aulas, "AVery Strange Peace," MERIP Reports 82 (November 1979), 20
133. Stork and Reachard, "Chronology," 29.
134. Baker, Egypt's Uncertain Revolution, 155.
135. That same month, the State Department licensed New York-based Jonas Aircraft and Arms. Co. to sell the Egyptian Ministry of the Interior 100,000 tear and pepper gas grenades, over six times what Egypt had acquired the prior year and a sturdy cache for future riot control (Klare and Arnson, Supplying Repression, 144-145).
136. Baker, Egypt's Uncertain Revolution, 168.
137. Ibid., 143.
138. Jimmy Carter, Keeping Faith: Memoirs of a President (New York: Bantam, 1982), 282-285, 288, 290.
139. Stork and Reachard, "Chronology," 29.
140. Dessouki, "Egyptian Foreign Policy since Camp David," 106.
141. Carter, Keeping Faith, 292-293, 295.
142. Lester A. Sobel, Peace-Making in the Middle East (New York: Facts on File, 1980), 165.
143. Ibrahim, "Domestic Developments in Egypt," 26.
144. Ibid., 27.
145. Raymond A. Hinnebusch, "Children of the Elite: Political Attitudes of the Westernized Bourgeoisie in Contemporary Egypt," Middle East Journal 36 (Autumn 1982): 546.
146. Baker, Egypt's Uncertain Revolution, 143
147. Carter, Keeping Faith, 311.
148. Simone Mundesir, "Sadat and Democracy," Arab Report, 14 February 1979, 9.
149. Christopher S. Wren, "98% Endorse Sadat's Curbs," The New York Times, 23 May 1978.
150. "Chronology February 16, 1978-May 15, 1978," Middle East Journal 32 (Summer 1978): 160
151. "Chronology May 16, 1978-August 15, 1978," Middle East Journal 32 (Autumn 1978): 460-461.
152. Sobel, Peace-Making in the Middle East, 221.
153. Putnam, "Diplomacy and Domestic Politics," 430.
154. For a critique of the literature that emphasized Sadat's personality
155. see Ibrahim A. Karawan, "Sadat and the Egyptian-Israeli Peace Revisited," International Journal of Middle East Studies 26 (May 1994): 249-266.
156. Carter, Keeping Faith, 322.
157. Mohamed Ibrahim Kamel, The Camp David Accords: A Testimony by Sadat's Foreign Minister (London: KPI, 1986), 290.
158. Brzezinski, Power and Principle, 274.
159. Shibley Telhami, "The Camp David Accords: A Case of International Bargaining," unpublished paper, n.d., 15.
160. Jimmy Carter, We Can Have Peace in the Holy Land: A Plan that Will Work (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2009), 35.
161. Carter, Keeping Faith, 354-355.
162. This hierarchical top-down structure did not characterize the Israeli delegation. In that group, vigorous debate often left Begin at odds with his top advisers, but those around him perceived the premier giving ground in response to their input.
163. Moshe Dayan, Breakthrough: A Personal Account of the Egypt-Israel Peace Negotiations (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1981), 154.
164. Kamel, The Camp David Accords, 308.
165. Carter, Keeping Faith, 352.
166. Ibid., 358
167. see also Kamel, The Camp David Accords, 149.
168. Ezer Weizman, The Battle for Peace (New York: Bantam, 1981), 165-166.
169. Carter, Keeping Faith, 410.
170. Sadat would also enjoy the cover of parliamentary approval, but this step did not imply an equivalent amount of political wrangling on the Egyptian side
171. Sadat's party held over three-quarters of seats in the legislature and the institution had historically reflected the preferences of the president.
172. See Dayan, Breakthrough, 180
173. Kamel, The Camp David Accords, 356.
174. William B. Quandt, Camp David: Peacemaking and Politics (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution, 1986), 236, 258.
175. Kamel, The Camp David Accords, 371.
176. Brzezinski, Power and Principle, 234.
177. Carter, Keeping Faith, 356.
178. Brzezinski, Power and Principle, 272.
179. Kamel, The Camp David Accords, 357.
180. Shibley Telhami, "Evaluating Bargaining Performance: The Case of Camp David," Political Science Quarterly 107 (Winter 1992-1993): 630.
181. Courtney Jung, Ellen Lust-Okar, and Ian Shapiro, "Problems and Prospects for Democratic Settlements: South Africa as a Model for the Middle East and Northern Ireland?" Politics & Society 33 (2005): 277-326.
182. Kamel, The Camp David Accords, 341.
183. Ibid., 335.
184. Ibid., 342.
185. Carter, Keeping Faith, 383
186. Kamel, The Camp David Accords, 372.
187. Weizman, The Battle for Peace, 372
188. Carter, Keeping Faith, 312
189. Brzezinski, Power and Principle, 270.
190. Carter, Keeping Faith, 362, 380, 394.
191. They were the "Framework for Peace in the Middle East" and the "Framework for the Conclusion of a Peace Treaty between Egypt and Israel."
192. Carter, Keeping Faith, 405.
193. William B. Quandt, "Introduction"
194. Quandt, ed., The Middle East, 7.
195. The other pillar was the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Tore T. Petersen, The Decline of the Anglo- American Middle East, 1961-1969: A Willing Retreat (Portland: Sussex Academic Press, 2006), 30
196. Douglas Little, American Orientalism: The United States and the Middle East since 1945 (Chapel Hill: University of Chapel Hill, 2008), 139.
197. Stork and Reachard, "Chronology," 30.
198. John M. Goshko, "Sadat Seeking Arms, Broader Pro-West Role," Washington Post, 21 February 1979.
199. Carter's public remarks were more subdued.
200. See John M. Goshko, "Carter on Regional Stability: A Vision of Mideast at Peace," Washington Post, 23 February 1979.
201. NBC Evening News, 17 February 1979. From the Television News Archive, Vanderbilt University, accessed 14 January 2010.
202. Stork and Reachard, "Chronology," 30.
203. Brzezinski, Power and Principle, 277.
204. Carter, Keeping Faith, 415-416.
205. Brzezinski, Power and Principle, 283.
206. Carter, Keeping Faith, 417, emphasis added.
207. Carter, Keeping Faith, 422-425.
208. Carter, Keeping Faith, 425.
209. Quandt, Camp David, 302.
210. Irene Beeson, "Egypt jittery on eve of treaty," The Guardian, 26 March 1979
211. Stork and Reachard, "Chronology," 30.
212. Stanley Reed, "Peace Treaty Blues in Egypt," Arab Report, May 9, 1979, 6.
213. Al Jazeera, "al Salaam al murr bayn misr wa isra'il" [The Bitter Peace Between Egypt and Israel]. Originally broadcast 26 March 2009. Accessed at http://www.aljazeera.net/NR/exeres/4BD91528-3DEB-40FF-B3BB-A0CE5F27FAF9, 15 January 2010.
214. Begin's Minister of Defense shared this view: "The dangers facing the first agreement [the bi-lateral peace treaty] hinge on Sadat. In the whole Camp David mosaic, Sadat constitutes the key link whose fracture would lead to disintegration of the entire chain."
215. Weizman, The Battle for Peace, 376.
216. Carter, Keeping Faith, 428.
217. "Egypt Assembly Approves Pact," Los Angeles Times, 11 April 11 1979
218. Aulas, "A Very Strange Peace," 19.
219. Christopher S.Wren, "Sadat Sets April 9 Vote on Peace Pact," The New York Times, 12April 1979.
220. The same referendum began the process of creating a second parliamentary body (the Consultative Assembly) and a supreme council overseeing the press.
221. Anwar Sadat, "biyan al ra'is Muhammad anwar al-sadat illa al-ummah," 11 April 1979, accessed at http://sadat.bibalex.org/Speeches/browser.aspx?SID5819, 2 February 2010
222. Thomas W. Lippman, "Egyptians Vote on Treaty with Israel," The Washington Post, 19 April 1979
223. LexisNexis, accessed 2 February 2010.
224. NBC Evening News, 19 April 1979. From the Television News Archive, Vanderbilt University, accessed at http://tvnews.vanderbilt.edu/, 14 January 2010.
225. "Egypt Votes and Sadat's Sitting Pretty," The Montreal Gazette, 7 June 1979.
226. Thomas W. Lippman, "Victory by Sadat's Party Strengthens his Control," Washington Post, 11 June 1979
227. Aulas, "A Very Strange Peace," 18-19.
228. Stanley Reed, "Sadat does it again," Arab Report, 20 June 1979
229. Heikal, Autumn of Fury, 104, 207.
230. Beattie, Egypt under Sadat, 242.
231. Stanley Reed, "Sadat stage-manages the elections," 6 June 1979, 9
232. John Waterbury, The Egypt of Nasser and Sadat (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1983), 371.
233. Ann Crittenden, "Supporting Treaty is Costly for U.S.," The New York Times, 26 March 1979
234. Sharp, "Egypt," 31-32.
235. Stork, "The Carter Doctrine," 9.
236. Stork, Reachard, "Chronology," 31.
237. Youssef M. Ibrahim, "U.S. Stake in Egypt Rests on One Man-Anwar el-Sadat," The New York Times, 30 March 1980.
238. Joel Beinin, "The Cold Peace," MERIP Reports 129 (January 1985), 5.
239. William B. Quandt, "May 26: Now What?" Washington Post, 26 May 1980.
240. "Sadat Gets Overwhelming Mandate, Egypt Reports," The New York Times, 24 May 1980
241. "98.9% of Egyptians Vote to Allow Sadat as Many Terms as He Wants," Los Angeles Times, 24 May 1980.
242. Mohamed Sid-Ahmed, "Shifting Sands of Peace in the Middle East," International Security 5 (Summer 1980): 75.
243. Waterbury, The Egypt of Nasser and Sadat, 372
244. Kienle, A Grand Delusion, 19.
245. Robert Fisk, "Why the Red Major sees democracy ebbing from Egypt," The Times of London, 10 April 1980.
246. Raymond William Baker, "Sadat's Open Door: Opposition from Within," Social Problems 28 (April 1981), 383-384
247. Waterbury, The Egypt of Nasser and Sadat, 372-373.
248. Mustapha K. El-Sayed, "Egyptian Popular Attitudes toward the Palestinians Since 1977," Journal of Palestine Studies 18 (Summer 1989): 39.
249. Ibrahim, "Domestic Developments in Egypt," 41-42.
250. Ronald Reagan, "Toasts of President Reagan and President Anwar el-Sadat of Egypt at the State Dinner," 5 August 1981, accessed at http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid544148,3 February 2010
251. Ibrahim, "Domestic Developments in Egypt," 26.
252. Sobel, Peace-Making in the Middle East, 165.
253. Moussa Sabri, Al-Sadat: Al haqiqah wa al usturah [Sadat: The reality and the legend] (Cairo: Al maktab al misri al hadith, 1985), 166.
254. Sabri, Al-Sadat, 165.
255. Ibrahim, "Domestic Developments in Egypt," 25.
256. Caryle Murphy, Passion for Islam (New York: Scribner, 2002), 62-63.
257. Ibrahim, "Domestic Developments in Egypt," 33.
258. Said Aly, "Egypt," 73, 88-89.
259. Ibrahim, "Domestic Developments in Egypt," 19.
260. Ibid., 31.
261. Robert Springborg, Mubarak's Egypt: Fragmentation of the Political Order (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1989), 99, 101, 125 fn. 1.
262. Dessouki, "Egyptian Foreign Policy since Camp David," 98
263. Ibrahim, "Domestic Developments in Egypt," 33-34.
264. Dessouki, "Egyptian Foreign Policy since Camp David," 98.
265. Antonio Gramsci, Selections from the Prison Notebooks (London: Lawrence and Wishart, 1971)
266. Ayubi, Over-stating the Arab State
267. Ian S. Lustick, "Hegemony and the Riddle of Nationalism,"
268. Leonard Binder, ed., Ethnic Conflict and International Politics in the Middle East (Gainesville: University of Florida Press, 1999), 340.
269. Nils Gilman, Mandarins of the Future: Modernization Theory in Cold War America (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2003), 267.
270. Steven A. Cook, "Political Instability in Egypt," Contingency Planning Memorandum No. 4, Council on Foreign Relations, August 2009, 2.
271. Edward P. Djerejian, "The US and the Middle East in a changing world," U.S. Department of State Dispatch, 8 June 1992.
272. A spring 2011 poll showed 63 percent of respondents "somewhat" or "much more" likely to support a party that "favors keeping Egypt's peace with Israel."
273. "Egypt National Survey," International Peace Institute, accessed at http://www.ipinst.org/images/pdfs/egypt-poll-results-april2011.pdf, 26 April 2011.
274. Steven A. Cook, "The Right Way to Promote Arab Reform," Foreign Affairs 84 (March- April 2005): 97.
275. Tamara Cofman Wittes, Freedom's Unsteady March: America's Role in Building Arab Democracy (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press, 2008), 118-119.