Risks of transmitting mycoplasmas by semen and embryo transfer techniques in cattle, sheep, goats and pigs

CAB Reviews: Perspectives in Agriculture, Veterinary Science, Nutrition and Natural Resources

Volumn 2, Issue , 2007, Pages

  Wrathall, A E ^a   Ayling, R D ^a   Simmons, H A ^a  

^a VETERINARY LABORATORIES AGENCY   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Artificial insemination; Disease control; Embryo transfer; Livestock; Mycoplasma

Indexed keywords

EID: 84855554685     PISSN: None     EISSN: 17498848     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1079/PAVSNNR20072036     Document Type: Review

References (211)

1. Wrathall AE. Risks of transmission of spongiform encephaolpathies by reproductive technologies in domesticated ruminants. Livestock Production Science 2000;62:287-316.
2. Office International des Epizooties (OIE). Terrestrial Animal Health Code. 12th ed. The OIE, Paris, France; 2006. Available from: URL: http://www.oie.int/eng/norms
3. Stringfellow DA, Seidel SM (editors). Manual of the International Embryo Transfer Society: A Procedural Guide and General Information for the Use of Embryo Transfer Technology, Emphasising Sanitary Procedures. 3rd ed. IETS, Savoy, Illinois; 1998.
4. Wrathall AE, Simmons HA, Van Soom A. Evaluation of risks of viral transmission to recipients of bovine embryos arising from fertilisation with virus-infected semen. Theriogenology 2006;65:247-74.
5. Bielanski A, Devenish J, Phipps Todd B. Effects of Mycoplasma bovis and Mycoplasma bovigenitalium in semen on fertilization and association with in vitro produced morula and blastocyst stage embryos. Theriogenology 2000;53:1213-23.
6. Wrathall AE, Simmons HA, Bowles DJ, Jones S. Biosecurity strategies for conserving valuable livestock genetic resources. Reproduction, Fertility and Development 2004;16:103-12.
7. Bove JM. Molecular features of mollicutes. Clinical Infectious Diseases 1993;17 Supp. 1:S10-S31.
8. Tully JG. Mollicutes (Mycoplasmas). In: Lederberg J, editor. Encyclopedia of Microbiology. Volume 3. Academic Press, New York, USA; 1992. p. 181-91.
9. Razin S. Adherence of pathogenic mycoplasmas to host cells. Bioscience Reports 1999;19:367-72.
10. Nicholas R, Bashiruddin J, Ayling R, Miles R. Contagious bovine pleuropneumonia: a review of recent developments. The Veterinary Bulletin 2000;70:827-38.
11. Mattsson JG, Guss B, Johansson K-E. The phylogeny of Mycoplasma bovis as determined by sequence analysis of the 16S rRNA gene. FEMS Microbiology Letters 1994;115:325-8.
12. Neimark H, Johansson K-E, Rikihasa Y, Tully JG. Revision of haemotrophic Mycoplasma species names. International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology 2002;52:683.
13. Stakenborg T, Vicca J, Butaye P, Imberechts H, Peeters J, de Kruif A, et al. A multiplex PCR to identify porcine mycoplasmas present in broth cultures. Veterinary Research Communications 2006;30:239-47.
14. Johansson KE, Pettersson B. Taxonomy of Mollicutes. In: Razin S, Herrmann R., editors. Molecular Biology and Pathogenicity of Mycoplasmas. Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, New York, USA; 2002. p. 1-29.
15. Neimark H, Kocan KM. The cell wall-less rickettsia Eperythrozoon wenyonii is a Mycoplasma. FEMS Microbiology Letters 1997;156:287-91.
16. Neimark H, Johansson K-E, Rikihasa Y, Tully JG. Proposal to transfer some members of the genera Haemobartonella and Eperythrozoon to the genus Mycoplasma with descriptions of 'Candidatus Mycoplasma haemofelis' Candidatus Mycoplasma haemomuris ', 'Candidatus Mycoplasma haemosuis' and 'Candidatus Mycoplasma wenyonii'. International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology 2001;51:891-9.
17. Neimark H, Hoff B, Ganter M. Mycoplasma ovis comb. (formerly Eperythrozoon ovis), an eperythrocytic agent of haemolytic anaemia in sheep and goats. International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology 2004;54:365-71.
18. Messick JB. New perspectives about Hemotrophic mycoplasma (formerly, Haemobartonella and Eperythrozoon species) infections in dogs and cats. Veterinary Clinics of North America: Small Animal Practice 2003;33:1453-65.
19. Cottew GS, Yeats FR. Subdivision of Mycoplasma mycoides subsp. mycoides from cattle and goats into two types. Australian Veterinary Journal 1978;54:293-6.
20. Cottew GS, Breard A, DaMassa AJ, Erno H, Leach RH, Lefevre PC, et al. Taxonomy of the Mycoplasma mycoides cluster. Israel Journal of Medical Science 1987;23:632-5.
21. Nicolet J. Mycoplasma infections in cattle, sheep and goats: methods for diagnosis and prophylaxis. In: Office International des Epizooties (OIE), editors. Comprehensive Reports on Technical Items Presented to The International Committee or to Regional Commissions. The OIE, Paris, France; 1994. p. 43-54.
22. Ruffin DC. Mycoplasma infections in small ruminants. Veterinary Clinics of North America: Food Animal Practice 2001;17:315-32.
23. Hum S, Kessell A, Djordjevic SP, Rheinberger R, Horntizky M, Forbes W, et al. Mastitis, polyarthritis and abortion caused by Mycoplasma species bovine group 7 in dairy cattle. Australian Veterinary Journal 2000;78:744-50.
24. Pettersson B, Leitner T, Ronaghi M, Bolske G, Uhlen M, Johansson KE. Phylogeny of the Mycoplasma mycoides cluster as determined by sequence analysis of the 16S rRNA genes from the two rRNA operons. Journal of Bacteriology 1996;178:4131-42.
25. McAuliffe L, Ellis RJ, Lawes JR, Ayling RD, Nicholas RAJ. 16S rDNA PCR and denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis: a single generic test for detecting and differentiating Mycoplasma species. Journal of Medical Microbiology 2005;54:731-39.
26. Vilei EM, Korczak BM, Frey J. Mycoplasma mycoides subsp. capri and Mycoplasma mycoides subsp. mycoides LC can be grouped into a single subspecies. Veterinary Research 2006;37:779-90.
27. Harasawa R, Hotzel H, Sachse K. Comparison of the 16S-23S rRNA intergenic spacer regions among strains of the Mycoplasma mycoides cluster, and reassessment of the taxonomic position of Mycoplasma sp. bovine group 7. International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology 2000;50:1325-29.
28. Office International des Epizooties (OIE). Terrestrial Animal Health Code. 10th ed. The OIE, Paris, France; 2004.
29. ter Laak EA, Tully JG, Noordergraaf HH, Rose DL, Carle P, Bove JM, et al. Recognition of Mycoplasma canis as part of the mycoplasma flora of the bovine respiratory tract. Veterinary Microbiology 1993;34:175-81.
30. Nicholas RAJ, Greig A, Baker SE, Ayling RD, Heldtander M, Johansson KE, et al. Isolation of Mycoplasma fermentans from a sheep. Veterinary Record 1998;142:220-1.
31. Pitcher DG, Nicholas RAJ. Mycoplasma host specificity: fact or fiction? The Veterinary Journal 2005;170:300-6.
32. Ernø H. Addendum III. Diagnostic index. In: Whitford HW, Rosenbusch RF, Lauerman LH., editors. Mycoplasmosis in Animals: Laboratory Diagnosis. Iowa State University Press, Ames, USA; 1994. p. 158-66.
33. Winner F, Rosengarten R, Citti C. In vitro cell invasion of Mycoplasma gallisepticum. Infection and Immunity 2000;68:4238-44.
34. Roulland-Dussoix D, Henry A, Lemercier B. Detection of mycoplasmas in cell-cultures by PCR - A one year study. Journal of Microbiological Methods 1994;19:127-34.
35. Dvorakova H, Valicek L, Reichelova M. Detection of mycoplasma contamination in cell cultures and bovine sera. Veterinarni Medicina - Czech 2005;50:262-8.
36. MacOwen KJ, Brand TF, McGillveray N, Hunter AR. Experimental infection of castrated lambs with Mycoplasma agalactiae. Journal of Hygiene, Cambridge 1984;93:455-63.
37. Cottew GS, Yeats FR. Mycoplasmas and mites in the ears of clinically normal goats. Australian Veterinary Journal 1982;59:77-81.
38. Da Massa AJ, Brooks DL. The external ear canal of goats and other animals as a Mycoplasma habitat. Small Ruminant Research 1991;4:85-93.
39. Bergonier D, Berthelot X, Poumarat F. Contagious agalactia of small ruminants: current knowledge concerning epidemiology, diagnosis and control. Revue Scientifique et Technique, Office International des Epizooties 1997;16:848-73.
40. Choi C, Kwon D, Jung K, Ha Y, Lee Y-H, Kim O, et al. Expression of inflammatory cytokines in pigs experimentally infected with Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae. Journal of Comparative Pathology 2006;134:40-6.
41. Lo SC, Dawson MS, Wong DM, Newton PB, Sonoda MA, et al. Identification of Mycoplasma incognitos infection in patients with AIDS; an immunohistochemical, in situ hybridization and ultrastructural study. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 1989;41:601-16.
42. Taylor-Robinson D, Davies HA, Sarathchandra P, Furr PM. Intracellular location of mycoplasmas in cultured cells demonstrated by immunocytochemistry and electron microscopy. International Journal of Experimental Pathology 1991;72:705-14.
43. Mernaugh GR, Dallo SF, Holt SC, Baseman JB. Properties of adhering and nonadhering populations of M. genitalium. Clinical Infectious Diseases 1993;17 Suppl. 1:69-78.
44. Statlander CT, Watson HL, Simecka JW, Cassell GH. Cytopathogenicity of Mycoplasma fermentans (including strain incognitus). Clinical Infectious Diseases 1993;17 Suppl. 1:289-301.
45. Baseman JB, Lange M, Criscimagna NL, Giron JA, Thomas CA. Interplay between mycoplasmas and host target cells. Microbial Pathogenicity 1995;19:105-16.
46. Levisohn S, Dykstra MJ, Lin MY, Kleven SH. Comparison of in vivo and in vitro methods for pathogenicity evaluation for Mycoplasma gallisepticum in respiratory infection. Avian Pathology 1985;15:233-46.
47. Much P, Winner F, Stipkovits L, Rosengarten R, Citti C. Mycoplasma gallisepticum : influence of cell invasiveness on the outcome of experimental infection in chickens. FEMS Immunology and Medical Microbiology 2002;34:181-6.
48. Lin Y-C, Miles RJ, Nicholas RAJ, Wood AP. A rapid chromogenic microtitre assay of arginine aminopeptidase activity in Mycoplasma strains. Systematic and Applied Microbiology 2006;29:589-92.
49. Stradaioli G, Sylla L, Mazzarelli F, Zelli R, Rawadi G, Monaci M. Mycoplasma mycoides subsp. mycoides SC identification by PCR in sperm of seminal vesiculitis-affected bulls. Veterinary Research 1999;30:457-66.
50. Jackson R, King C. Mycoplasma mycoides subsp. mycoides (large colony) infection in goats. A review with special reference to the occurrence in New Zealand. Surveillance 2002;29:8-12.
51. Christiansen G, Drasbek M, Birkelund S. Mycoplasma pneumoniae and other mycoplasmas. In: Sussman M, editor. Molecular Medical Microbiology. Academic Press, London; 2002. p. 1703-16.
52. Pfutzner H, Sachse K. Mycoplasma bovis as an agent of mastitis, pneumonia, arthritis and genital disorders in cattle. Revue Scientifique et Technique, Office International des Epizooties 1996;15:1477-94.
53. McAuliffe L, Lawes J, Bell S, Barlow A, Ayling R, Nicholas R. The detection of Mycoplasma (formerly Eperythrozoon) wenyonii by 16S rDNA PCR and denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis. Veterinary Microbiology 2006;117:292-6.
54. Ayling RD, Baker SE, Nicholas RAJ, Peek ML, Simon AJ. Comparison of in vitro activity of danafloxacin, florfenicol, oxytetracycline, spectinomycin and tilmicosin against Mycoplasma mycoides subsp. mycoides small colony type. Veterinary Record 2000;146:243-6.
55. Ayling RD, Baker SE, Simon AJ, Peek ML, Nicholas RAJ. Comparison of in vitro activity of danafloxacin, florfenicol, oxytetracycline, spectinomycin and tilmicosin against Mycoplasma bovis. Veterinary Record 2000;146:745-7.
56. Francoz D, Fortin M, Fecteau G, Messler S. Determination of Mycoplasma bovis susceptibilities against six antimicrobial agents using the E test method. Veterinary Microbiology 2005;105:57-64.
57. Sabirovic M, Raw L, Hall S, Coulson N. International disease monitoring, January to March 2005. Veterinary Record 2005;156:664-8.
58. Parsonson I. The Australian Ark: A History of Domesticated Animals in Australia. CSIRO Publishing, Collingwood, Victoria 3066, Australia; 1998.
59. Nicholas RAJ. Recent developments in the diagnosis and control of mycoplasma infections in cattle. Proceedings of the 23rd World Buiatrics Congress, Quebec, Canada, 11-16 July 2004.
60. Guadagnini PF, De Simone F, Panini GF, Gaffuri A, Bugnatti M, Finazzi M, et al. La pleuropneumonite contagiosa dei bovini (PPCB). Selezione Veterinaria 1991;32:3-31.
61. Nicholas RAJ, Palmer N. Contagious bovine pleuropneumonia in Europe. State Veterinary Journal 1994;4:14-16.
62. Vilei EM, Abdo E-M, Nicolet J, Botelho A, Goncalves R, Frey J. Genomic and antigenic differences between the European and African/Australian clusters of Mycoplasma mycoides subsp. mycoides SC. Microbiology 2000;146:477-86.
63. Miles K, Colin P, Churchward P, McAuliffe L, Ayling RD, Nicholas RAJ. Identification and differentiation of European and African/Australian strains of Mycoplasma mycoides subspecies mycoides small-colony type using polymerase chain reaction analysis. Journal of Veterinary Diagnostic Investigation 2006;18:168-71.
64. Regalla J, Caporale V, Giovannini A, Santini F, Martel JL, Goncalves A. Manifestation and epidemiology of contagious bovine pleuropneumonia in Europe. Revue Scientifique et Technique, Office International des Epizooties 1996;15:1309-25.
65. Ayling R, Regalla J, Spencer Y, Nicholas R, De Santis P. Investigation on a CBPP outbreak in Portugal. COST 826. Agriculture and Biotechnology. Mycoplasmas of Ruminants: Pathogenicity, Diagnostics, Epidemiology and Molecular Genetics. 1998. p. 117-20.
66. Goncalves MR. Isolation and identification of Mycoplasma mycoides subspecies mycoides SC from bull semen and sheath washings in Portugal. Veterinary Record. 1994;135:308-9.
67. Radostits OM, Gay CC, Blood DC, Hinchcliff KW (editors). Veterinary Medicine: A Textbook of the Diseases of Cattle, Sheep, Pigs, Goats and Horses. 9th ed. W.B. Saunders Co. Ltd, London; 2000. p. 999-1004.
68. Office International des Epizooties (OIE). 'Contagious bovine pleuropneumonia'. In: Terrestrial Manual of Diagnostic Tests and Vaccines, Volume II. The OIE, Paris, France; 2004. Chapter 2.1.6. p. 163-74.
69. Ayling RD, Bisgaard-Frantzen S, March JB, Godinho K, Nicholas RAJ. Assessing the in vitro effectiveness of antimicrobials against Mycoplasma mycoides subsp. mycoides small colony type to reduce infections of contagious bovine pleuropneumonia. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 2005;49:5162-65.
70. Hubschle O, Godinho K, Nicholas RAJ. Danafloxacin treatment of cattle affected by CBPP. Veterinary Recod 2004;155:404.
71. Hubschle O, Aschenborn O, Godinho K, Nicholas R. Control of CBPP - a role for antibiotics? Veterinary Record 2006;159:464.
72. Hubschle OJB, Ayling RD, Godinho K, Lukhele O, Tipura-Zaire G, Rowan TG, et al. Danofloxacin ('Advocin TM') reduces the spread of contagious bovine pleuropneumonia to healthy in-contact cattle. Research in Veterinary Science 2006;81:304-9.
73. Nicholas RAJ, Santini FG, Clark KM, Palmer NMA, De Santis P, Bashiruddin JB. A comparison of serological tests and gross lung pathology for detecting contagious bovine pleuropneumonia in two groups of Italian cattle. Veterinary Record 1996;139:89-93.
74. Le Goff C, Thiacourt F. A competitive ELISA for the specific diagnosis of contagious bovine pleuropneumonia (CBPP). Veterinary Microbiology 1998;60:179-91.
75. Mbulu RS, Tjipura-Zaire G, Lelli R, Frey J, Pilo P, Vilei EM, et al. Contagious bovine pleuropneumonia caused by vaccine strain T1/44 of Mycoplasma mycoides subsp. mycoides SC. Veterinary Microbiology 2004;98:229-34.
76. Scudamore JM. Observations on the epidemiology of contagious bovine pleuropneumonia: Mycoplasma mycoides in urine. Research in Veterinary Science 1976;20:330-3.
77. Hale HH, Helmboldt CF, Plastridge WN, Stula EF. Bovine mastitis caused by a Mycoplasma species. Cornell Veterinarian 1962;52:582-91.
78. Scudamore JM. The international cattle trade: problems, and the control of disease. British Veterinary Journal 1984;140:413-29.
79. Brice N, Finlay D, Bryson DG, Henderson J, McConnell W, Ball HJ. Isolation of Mycoplasma bovis from cattle in Northern Ireland. Veterinary Record 2000;146:643-4.
80. Byrne WJ, McCormack R, Brice N, Markey B, Ball HJ. Isolation of Mycoplasma bovis from bovine clinical samples in the Republic of Ireland. Veterinary Record 2001;148:331-3.
81. Nicholas RAJ, Ayling R. Mycoplasma bovis : disease, diagnosis and control. Research in Veterinary Science 2003;74:105-12.
82. McAuliffe L, Kokotovic B, Ayling RD, Nicholas RAJ. Molecular epidemiological analysis of Mycoplasma bovis isolates from the United Kingdom shows two genetically distinct clusters. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 2004;42:4556-65.
83. Lamm CG, Munson L, Thurmond MC, Barr BC, George LW. Mycoplasma otitis in California calves. Journal of Veterinary Diagnostic Investigation 2004;16:397-402.
84. Ayling R, Nicholas R, Hogg R, Wessels J, Scholes S, Byrne W, et al. Mycoplasma bovis isolated from brain tissue of calves. Veterinary Record 2005;156:391-2.
85. Houlihan MG, Veenstra B, Christian MK, Nicholas R, Ayling R. Mastitis and arthritis in two dairy herds caused by Mycoplasma bovis. Veterinary Record 2007;160:126-7.
86. Subramaniam S, Bergonier D, Poumerat F, Capaul S, Schlatter J, Nicolet J, et al. Species identification of Mycoplasma bovis and Mycoplasma agalactiae based on uvrC genes by PCR. Molecular and Cellular Probes 1998;12:161-9.
87. Tenk M, Balint A, Stipkovits L, Biro J, Dencso L. Detection of Mycoplasma bovis with an improved PCR assay. Acta Veterinaria Hungarica 2006;54:427-35.
88. Ruhnke HL. Mycoplasmas associated with bovine genital tact infections. In: Whitford HW, Rosenbusch RF, Lauerman LH, editors. Mycoplasmosis in Animals. Iowa State University Press, Ames, USA; 1994. p. 56-61.
89. Hirth RS, Nielsen SW, Plastridge WN. Bovine salpingooophoritis produced with semen containing a Mycoplasma. Pathologia Veterinaria 1966;3:616-32.
90. Eaglesome MD, Garcia MM. The effect of Mycoplasma bovis on fertilization processes in vitro with bull spermatozoa and zona-free hamster oocytes. Veterinary Microbiology 1990;21:329-37.
91. Nicholas RAJ. The other M. bovis; Mycoplasma bovis. State Veterinary Journal 1997;7:3-5.
92. Nicholas RAJ, Baker SE. Recovery of mycoplasmas from animals. In: Miles RJ, Nicholas RAJ, editors. Mycoplasma Protocols. Humana Press, Totowa, USA; 1998. p. 37-44.
93. Poveda JB, Nicholas RAJ. Serological identification of mycoplasmas by growth and metabolism inhibition tests. In: Miles RJ, Nicholas RAJ, editors. Mycoplasma Protocols. Humana Press, Totowa, USA; 1998. p. 105-12.
94. Godinho KS, Sarasola P, Renoult E, Tilt N, Keane S, Windsor GD, et al. Use of deep nasopharyngeal swabs as a predictive diagnostic method for natural respiratory infections in calves. Veterinary Record 2007; 160: 22-5.
95. Nicholas RAJ, Wood E, Baker S, Ayling RD. Mycoplasma infections in growing cattle. Cattle Practice 2000;8:115-8.
96. Byrne WJ, Ball HJ, Brice N, McCormack R, Baker SE, Ayling RD, et al. Application of an indirect ELISA to milk samples to identify cows with Mycoplasma bovis mastitis. Veterinary Record 2000;146:368-9.
97. Nicholas RAJ, Ayling R, Stipkovits L. An experimental vaccine for calf pneumonia caused by Mycoplasma bovis. Vaccine 2002;20:3569-75.
98. Langford EV. Mycoplasmas recovered from bovine male and female genitalia and aborted foeti. Proceedings of Annual Meeting of American Association of Veterinary Laboratory Diagnosticians 1975;18:221-32.
99. Onoviran O, Truscott RB, Fish NA, Barker CAV, Ruhnke HL. The recovery of mycoplasmas from the genital tracts of bulls in artificial breeding units in Ontario. Canadian Journal of Comparative Medicine 1975;39:474-5.
100. Fish NA, Rosendal S, Miller RB. The distribution of mycoplasmas and ureaplasmas in the genital tract of normal artificial insemination bulls. Canadian Veterinary Journal 1985;26:13-15.
101. Ball HJ, Logan EF, Orr W. Isolation of mycoplasmas from bovine semen in Northern Ireland. Veterinary Record 1987;121:322-4.
102. Panangala VS, Winter AJ, Wijesinha A, Foote RH. Decreased motility of bull spermatozoa caused by Mycoplasma bovigenitalium. American Journal of Veterinary Research 1981;42:2090-3.
103. Panangala VS, Hall CE, Caveney NT, Lein DH, Winter AJ. Mycoplasma bovigenitalium in the upper genital tract of bulls. Cornell Veterinarian 1982;72:292-303.
104. Eaglesome MD, Garcia MM, Stewart RB. Microbial agents associated with bovine genital tract infections and semen. Part II. Haemophilus somnus, Mycoplasma spp. and Ureaplasma spp, Chlamydia; pathogens and semen contaminants; treatment of bull semen with antimicrobial agents. The Veterinary Bulletin 1992;62:887-910.
105. Afshar A. Diseases of bovine reproduction associated with mycoplasma infections. The Veterinary Bulletin 1975;45:211-6.
106. Saed OM, Al-Aubaidi JM. Infertility in heifers caused by a pathogenic strain of Mycoplasma bovigenitalium . Cornell Veterinarian 1983;73:125-30.
107. Trichard CJV, Jacobsz EP. Mycoplasmas recovered from bovine genitalia, aborted foetuses and placentas in the Republic of South Africa. Onderstepoort Journal of Veterinary Research 1985;52:105-10.
108. St George TE, Horsfall N, Sullivan ND. A subclinical pneumonia of calves associated with Mycoplasma dispar. Australian Veterinary Journal 1973;49:580-6.
109. Ayling RD, Bashiruddin SE, Nicholas RA. Mycoplasma species and related organisms isolated from ruminants in Britain between 1990 and 2000. Veterinary Record 2004;155:413-6.
110. Blom E. Studies on seminal vesiculitis in the bull. I. Semen examination methods and post-mortem findings. Nordisk Veterinaermedicin 1979;31:193-205.
111. Doig PA, Ruhnke HL, Miller RB. Bovine reproductive failure associated with Ureaplasma diversum. Proceedings of Annual Convention of the American Association of Bovine Practitioners 1984;16:155-8.
112. Waelchli-Suter RO, Doig PA, Ruhnke HL, Palmer NC, Barker CAV. Experimental genital ureaplasmosis in the bull. Schweizer Archiv fur Tierheilkunde 1982;124:273-95.
113. Truscott RB, Ruhnke HL. Control of mycoplasma and ureaplasma in semen. In: Stalheim OHV, editor. Proceedings of an International Symposium on Microbiological Tests for the International Exchange of Animal Genetic Material. American Association of Veterinary Laboratory Diagnosticians, Madison, Wisconsin, USA; 1984. p. 50-64.
114. Ruhnke HL, Palmer NC, Doig PA, Miller RB. Bovine abortion and neonatal death associated with Ureaplasma diversum. Theriogenology 1984;21:295-301.
115. Khurana S, Garg DN. Detection of mycoplasmas in breeding bulls. Indian Veterinary Journal 1996;73:807-12.
116. Ulgen M, Cetin C, Senturk S, Ozel AE, Ozdemir U. Urinary tract infections due to Mycoplasma canis in dogs. Journal of Veterinary Medicine A: Physiology, Pathology and Clinical Medicine 2006;53:379-82.
117. Leach RH, Erno H, MacOwen KJ. Proposal for the designation of F38-type caprine Mycoplasmas as Mycoplasma capricolum subsp. capripneumoniae subsp. nov. and consequent obligatory relegation of strains currently classified as M. capricolum (Tully, Barile, Edward, Theodore and Erno 1974) to an additional new subspecies M. capricolum subsp. capricolum subsp. nov. International Journal of Systematic Bacteriology 1993;43:603-5.
118. Thiaucourt F, Bolske G. Contagious caprine pleuropneumonia and other pulmonary mycoplasmoses of sheep and goats. Revue Scientifique et Technique, Office International des Epizooties 1996;15:1397-414.
119. Lefevre P-C, Thiacourt F. Contagious caprine pleuropneumonia. In: Coetzer JAW, Tustin RC, editors. Infectious Diseases of Livestock, Volume 3. Oxford University Press, Oxford; 2004. p. 2060-5.
120. Nicholas RAJ. Contagious caprine pleuropneumonia. State Veterinary Journal 1999;9:11-13.
121. Ozdemir U, Ozdemir E, March JB, Churchward C, Nicholas RAJ. Contagious caprine pleuropneumonia in the Thrace region of Turkey. Veterinary Record 2005;156:286-7.
122. Mare CJ. Contagious caprine pleuropneumonia. In: Coetzer JAW, Thomson GE, Tustin RC, editors. Infectious Diseases of Livestock, Volume 2. Oxford University Press, Oxford; 1994. p. 1495-7.
123. Wesonga HO, Lindberg R, Litamoi JK, Bolske G. Late lesions in experimental contagious caprine pleuropneumonia caused by Mycoplasma capricolum subsp. capripneumoniae. Journal of Veterinary Medicine B 1998;45:105-14.
124. Office International des Epizooties (OIE). 'Contagious caprine pleuropneumonia' In: Terrestrial Manual of Diagnostic Tests and Vaccines, Volume II. The OIE, Paris, France; 2004. Chapter 2.4.6. p. 623-34.
125. Bolske G, Mattson JG, Bascunana CR, Bergstrom K, Wesonga H, Hohansson KE. Diagnosis of contagious caprine pleuropneumonia by detection and identification of Mycoplasma capricolum subsp. capripneumoniae by PCR and restriction enzyme analysis. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 1996;34:785-91.
126. Woubit S, Lorenzon S, Peyraud A, Manso-Silvan L, Thiaucourt F. A specific PCR for the identification of Mycoplasma capricolum subsp. capripneumoniae, the causative agent of contagious caprine pleuropneumonia (CCPP). Veterinary Microbiology 2004;104:125-32.
127. Jones GE, Wood AR. Microbiological and serological studies on caprine pneumonia in Oman. Research in Veterinary Science 1988;44:125-31.
128. March JB, Gammack C, Nicholas RAJ. Rapid detection of contagious caprine pleuropneumonia using a Mycoplasma capricolum subsp. capripneumoniae capsular polysaccharide-specific antigen detection latex agglutination test. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 2000;38:4152-9.
129. Houshaymi B, Tekleghiorghis T, Wilsmore AJ, Miles RJ, Nicholas RJ. Investigations of outbreaks of contagious caprine plueropneumonia in Eritrea. Tropical Animal Health and Production 2002;34:383-9.
130. Thiaucourt F, Bolske G, Libeau G, Le Goff C, Lefevre P-C. The use of monoclonal antibodies in the diagnosis of contagious caprine pleuropneumonia (CCPP). Veterinary Microbiology 1994;41:191-203.
131. Onoviran O. The comparative efficacy of some antibiotics used to treat experimentally induced mycoplasma infection in goats. Veterinary Record 1974;94:418-20.
132. El-Mahi MM, El-Nasri M. Isolation of mycoplasmas from goats in the Sudan. Tropical Animal Health and Production 1982;14:31-2.
133. Ozdemir U, Loria GR, Godinho KS, Samson R, Rowan TG, Churchward C, et al. Effect of danofloxacin (Advocin A180) on goats affected with contagious caprine pleuropneumonia. Tropical Animal Health and Production 2006;38:533-40.
134. Rurangirwa FR, Masiga WN, Muthomi EK. Immunisation of goats against contagious caprine pleuropneumonia using sonicated antigens of F-38 strain of mycoplasma. Research in Veterinary Science 1987;36:174-6.
135. Bridre J, Donatien A. Le microbe de l'agalaxie contagieuse et sa culture in vitro. Comptes rendus hebdomadaire des séances de l'Académie des Sciences, Paris 1923;177:841-3.
136. Nicholas RAJ. Improvements in the diagnosis and control of diseases of small ruminants caused by mycoplasmas. Small Ruminant Research 2002;45:145-9.
137. Office International des Epizooties (OIE). 'Contagious agalactia'. In: Terrestrial Manual of Diagnostic Tests and Vaccines, Volume II. The OIE, Paris, France; 2004. Chapter 2.4.3. p. 607-14.
138. Gil MC, Pena FJ, Hermozo De Mendoza J, Gomez L. Genital lesions in an outbreak of caprine contagious agalactia caused by Mycoplasma agalactiae and Mycoplasma putrefaciens. Journal of Veterinary Medicine 2003;50:484-7.
139. Al-Momani W, Halablad MA, Abo-Shehada MN, Miles K, McAuliffe L, Nicholas RAJ. Isolation and molecular identification of small ruminant mycoplasmas in Jordan. Small Ruminant Research 2006;65:106-12.
140. De la Fe C, Assunção P, Antunes T, Rosales RS, Poveda JB. Microbiological survey for Mycoplasma spp. in a contagious agalactia endemic area. The Veterinary Journal 2005;170:257-9.
141. Singh N, Rajya BS, Mohanty GC. Granular vulvovaginitis (GVV) in goats associated with Mycoplasma agalactiae. Cornell Veterinarian 1974;64:435-42.
142. Madanat A, Zendulkova D, Pospisil Z. Contagious agalactia of sheep and goats, a review. Acta Veterinaria Brno 2001;70:403-12.
143. Tola S, Angioi A, Rocchigiani AM, Idini G, Manunta D, Galleri G, et al. Detection of Mycoplasma agalactiae in sheep milk samples by polymerase chain reaction. Veterinary Microbiology 1997;54:17-22.
144. Bashiruddin JB, Taylor TK, Gould AR. A PCR-based test for the specific identification of M. mycoides subsp. mycoides SC. Journal of Veterinary Diagnostic Investigation 1994;6:428-34.
145. Chavez González YR, Ros Bascuñana C, Bölske G, Mattsson JG, Fernández Molina C, Johansson K-E. In vitro amplification of the 16S rRNA genes from Mycoplasma bovis and Mycoplasma agalactiae by PCR. Veterinary Microbiology 1995;47:183-90.
146. Antunes NT, Tavio MM, Assuncao P, Rosales RS, Aquili V, de la Fe C, et al. In vitro susceptibilities of field isolates of Mycoplasma mycoides subsp. mycoides large colony type to 15 antimicrobials. Veterinary Microbiology 2007;119:72-5.
147. Loria GR, Sammartino C, Nicholas RAJ, Ayling RD. In vitro susceptibilities of field isolates of Mycoplasma agalactiae to oxytetracycline, tylosin, enrofloxacin, spiramycin and lincomycin-spectinomycin. Research in Veterinary Science 2003;75:3-7.
148. De la Fe C, Assunção P, Saavedra P, Tola S, Poveda C, Poveda JB. Field trail of two dual vaccines against Mycoplasma agalactiae and Mycoplasma mycoides subsp. mycoides (large colony type) in goats. Vaccine 2007;25:2340-5.
149. Trichard CJV, Jordaan P, Prozesky L, Jacobsz EP, Henton MM. The identification of Mycoplasma mycoides mycoides LC as the aetiological agent of balanoposthitis and vulvovaginitis in sheep in South Africa. Onderstepoort Journal of Veterinary Research 1993;60:29-37.
150. Van Vuuren M, Trichard CJV. Ulcerative balanoposthitis and vulvovaginitis of sheep. In: Coetzer JAW, Tustin RC, editors. Infectious Diseases of Livestock, Volume 3. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK; 2004. p. 2152-6.
151. Rodriguez JL, Poveda JB, Gutierrez C, Acosta B, Fernandez A. Polyarthritis in kids associated with Mycoplasma putrefaciens . Veterinary Record 1994;135:406-7.
152. Kusiluka LJ, Semuguruka WD, Kazwala RR, Ojeniy B, Friis NF. Demonstration of Mycoplasma capricolum subsp. capripneumoniae and Mycoplasma mycoides subsp. mycoides, small colony type in outbreaks of caprine pleuropneumonia in eastern Tanzania. Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica 2000;41:311-9.
153. Kusiluka LJ, Ojeniy B, Friis NF, Kazwala RR, Kokotovic B. Mycoplasmas isolated from respiratory tract of cattle and goats in Tanzania. Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica 2001;42:299-309.
154. Thiaucourt F, Van der Lugt JJ, Provost A. Contagious bovine pleuropneumonia. In: Coetzer JAW, Tustin RC, editors. Infectious Diseases of Livestock, Volume 3. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK; 2004. p. 2045-59.
155. Alley MR, Ionas G, Clarke JK. Chronic non-progressive pneumonia of sheep in New Zealand - a review of the role of Mycoplasma ovipneumoniae. New Zealand Veterinary Journal 1999;42:155-60.
156. Parham K, Chrchward C, McAuliffe L, Nicholas RAJ, Ayling RD. Analysis of genetic variability amongst Mycoplasma ovipneumoniae strains shows a high degree of heterogeneity. Veterinary Microbiology 2006;118:83-90.
157. Motha M, Frey J, Hansen MF, Jamaludin R, Tham KM. Detection of Mycoplasma conjunctivae in sheep affected with conjunctivitis and infectious keratoconjunctivitis. New Zealand Veterinary Journal 2003;51:186-90.
158. Giacometti M, Nicolet J, Frey J, Krawinkler M, Meier W, Welle M, et al. Susceptibility of alpine ibex to conjunctivitis caused by inoculation of sheep-strain of Mycoplasma conjunctivae. Veterinary Microbiology 1998;61:279-88.
159. Nicholas RAJ, Wessels M, Orme PK, Wood E, Sachse K. Isolation of Mycoplasma ovine/caprine serogroup 11 from infertile sheep in Britain. Veterinary Record 1999;145:434-5.
160. Wessels M, Aldington JD, Nicholas RAJ. Mycoplasma serogroup 11 associated infertility. Proceedings of the Sheep Veterinary Society 2000;24:201-5.
161. Nicholas RAJ, Khan LA, Houshaymi B, Miles RJ, Ayling RD, Hotzel H, et al. Close genetic and phenotypic relatedness between Mycoplasma ovine/caprine serogroup 11 and Mycoplasma bovigenitalium. Systematic and Applied Microbiology 2002;25:396-402.
162. Bocklisch H, Kreusel S, Brys A, Pfutzner H. Experimental infection of the udder of ewes due to Mycoplasma bovis. Zentralblatt fur Veterinarmedizin B 1991;38:385-90.
163. Howard CJ. Animal ureaplasmas: their ecological niche and role in disease. Israel Journal of Medical Science 1984;20:954-7.
164. Livingstone CW, Gauer BB. Effect of venereal transmission of ovine
165. Ball HJ, McCaughey WJ, Kennedy S, McLoughlin M. Experimental intrauterine inoculation of pregnant ewes with ureaplasmas. Veterinary Research Communications 1985;9:35-43.
166. Ball HJ, McCaughey WJ, Kennedy S. Experimental intrauterine inoculation of ewes in early pregnancy with ureaplasma. Irish Veterinary Journal 1986;40:187-8.
167. Ball HJ, McCaughey WJ. An examination of the effects of ureaplasma infection on the fertility of synchronised ewes. Animal Reproduction Science 1987;13:61-6.
168. McCaughey WJ, Ball HJ. The physical appearance of the vulva in ureaplasma infected ewe. Veterinary Research Communications 1985;9:123-5.
169. Thacker EL, Halbur PG, Ross RF, Thanawongnuwech R, Thacker BJ. Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae potentiation of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus-induced pneumonia. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 1999;37:620-7.
170. Thacker EL, Thacker BJ, Janke BH. Interaction between Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae and swine influenza virus. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 2001;39:2525-30.
171. Thacker EL. Diagnosis of Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae. Animal Health Research Reviews 2004;5:317-20.
172. Meyns T, Maes D, Calus D, Ribbens S, Dewulf J, Chiers K, et al. Interactions of highly and low virulent Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae isolates with the respiratory tract of pigs. Veterinary Microbiology 2007;120:87-95.
173. Friis NF. Some recommendations concerning primary isolations of Mycoplasma suipneumoniae and Mycoplasma flocculare. Nordisk Veterinaermedicin 1975;27:337-9.
174. Friis NF. Selective isolation of slowly growing acidifying mycoplasmas from swine and cattle. Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica 1979;20:607-9.
175. Friis NF, Ahrens P, Larsen H. Mycoplasma hyosynoviae isolation from the upper respiratory tract and tonsils of pigs. Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica 1991;32:425-9.
176. Calsamiglia M, Pijoan C, Tigo A. Application of a nested polymerase chain reaction assay to detect Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae from nasal swabs. Journal of Veterinary Diagnostic Investigation 1999;11:246-51.
177. Siugzdaite J, Jukna C, Jukna V, Zilinskas H, Garlaite K. A field trial to study the efficacy of Respisure One® vaccine against pigs mycoplasmal pneumonia. Acta Veterinaria (Beograd) 2006;56:333-41.
178. Tzivara A, Kritas SK, Bourriel AR, Alexopoulos C, Kyriakis SC. Efficacy of an inactivated aqueous vaccine for the control of enzootic pneumonia in pigs infected with Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae. Veterinary Record 2007;160:225-9.
179. Meyns T, Dewulf J, de Kruif A, Calus D, Haesebrouck F, Maes D. Comparison of transmission of Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae in vaccinated and non-vaccinated populations. Vaccine 2006;24:7081-6.
180. Vasconcelos AT, Ferreira HB, Bizarro CV, Bonatto SL, Carvalho MO, Pinto PM, et al. Swine and poultry pathogens: the complete genome sequences of two strains of Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae and a strain of Mycoplasma synoviae. Journal of Bacteriology 2005;87:5568-77.
181. Ruiz A, Galina L, Pijoan C. Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae colonization of pigs sired by different boars. Canadian Journal of Veterinary Research 2002;66:79-85.
182. Lin JH, Chen SP, Yeh KS, Weng CN. Mycoplasma hyorhinis in Taiwan: diagnosis and isolation of swine pneumonia pathogen. Veterinary Microbiology 2006;115:111-6.
183. Friis NF, Kokotovic B, Svensmark B. Mycoplasma hyorhinis isolation from cases of otitis media in piglets. Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica 2002;43:191-3.
184. Shin JH, Joo HS, Lee WH, Seok HB, Calsamig M, et al. Identification and characterization of cytopathic Mycoplasma hyorhinis from swine farms with a history of abortions. Journal of Veterinary Medical Science 2003;65:501-9.
185. Ross RF. Mycoplasma-animal pathogens. In: Kahane I, Adoni JRA, editors. Rapid Diagnosis of Mycoplasmas. Plenum Press, New York; 1993. p. 69-109.
186. Schulman A, Estola T. Isolation of mycoplasmas from boar semen. Veterinary Record 1974;94:330-1.
187. Mandrup M, Friis NF, Meyling A, Meding JH. Studies on the possible occurrence of mycoplasmas in boar semen. Nordisk Veterinaermedicin 1975;27:557-61.
188. Stipkovits L. Reproductive failure of sows in association with Ureaplasma infection. Archives fur Experimentelle Veterinarmedizin (Leipzig) 1983;37:453-9.
189. Moulder JW, Order I. The Rickettsias. In: Buchanan RE, Gibbons NE, editors. Bergey's Manual of Determinative Bacteriology. 8th ed. Williams and Williams, Baltimore; 1974. p. 882-918.
190. Small E, Ristic M. Morphologic features of Haemobartonella felis. American Journal of Veterinary Research 1967;28:845-51.
191. Mason RW, Statham P. Susceptibility of sheep and goats to Eperythrozoon ovis infection. Australian Veterinary Journal 1991;68:116-7.
192. Smith JA, Thrall MA, Smith JA, Salman MD, Ching SV, Collins JK. Eperythrozoon wenyonii infection in dairy cattle. Journal of American Veterinary Medical Association 1990;196:1244-50.
193. Philbey AW, Barron RCJ, Gounden A. Chronic eperythrozoonosis in an adult ewe. Veterinary Record 2006;158:662-4.
194. Sylla L, Stradaioli G, Manuali E, Rota A, Zelli R, Vincenti L, et al. The effect of Mycoplasma mycoides ssp. mycoides LC of bovine origin on in vitro fertilizing ability of bull spermatozoa and embryo development. Animal Reproduction Science 2005;85:81-93.
195. Hare WCD. Diseases transmissible by semen and embryo transfer techniques. In: Office International de Epizooties, Technical Report Series, No. 4. Paris, France; 1985.
196. Livingstone CW, Gauer BB. Occurrence of Mycoplasma sp. (2D) in Texas sheep flocks. American Journal of Veterinary Research 1983;44:868-9.
197. Kapoor SG, Singh PP, Pathak RC. Prevalence of mycoplasma/acholeplasma in the genital tracts of sheep. Indian Journal of Animal Sciences 1984;54:653-6.
198. Shin SJ, Lein DH, Patten VH, Ruhnke HL. A new antibiotic combination for frozen bovine semen. 1. Control of mycoplasmas, ureaplasmas, Campylobacter fetus subsp. venerealis and Haemophilus somnus. Theriogenology 1988;29:577-91.
199. Sone M, Ohmura K, Bamba K. Effects of various antibiotics on the control of bacteria in boar semen. Veterinary Record 1983;111:11-14.
200. Guerin B, Thibier M. Value of adding antibiotics to frozen bovine semen: the example of mycoplasmas and campylobacters. Contraception, Fertility, Sex 1993;21:753-9.
201. Visser IJR, Ter Laak EA, Jansen HB, Gerard O. The effect of two antibiotic mixtures on Haemophilus somnus, Campylobacter fetus ssp. venerealis, Mycoplasma bovis and Ureaplasma diversum in frozen bovine semen. Reproduction in Domestic Animals 1995;30:55-9.
202. Visser IJR, Ter Laak EA, Jansen HB. Failure of antibiotics gentamycin, tylosin, lincomycin and spectinomycin to eliminate Mycoplasma bovis in artificially infected frozen bovine semen. Theriogenology 1999;51:686-97.
203. Foote RH. Spermicidal effects of amphoteracin B and nystatin on bull and rabbit sperm and contraceptive effects in rabbits. Contraception 2002;66:193-7.
204. Britton AP, Ruhnke HL, Miller RB, Johnson WH, Leslie KE, Rosendal S. In vitro exposure of bovine morulae to Ureaplasma diversum. Canadian Journal of Veterinary Research 1987;51:198-203.
205. Britton AP, Miller RB, Ruhnke HL, Johnson WM. The recovery of ureaplasmas from bovine embryos following in vitro exposure and ten washes. Theriogenology 1988;30:997-1003.
206. Britton AP, Miller RB, Ruhnke HL, Johnson WM. Protein A gold identification of ureaplasmas on the bovine zona pellucida. Canadian Journal of Veterinary Research 1989;53:172-5.
207. Bielanski A, Eaglesome MD, Ruhnke HL, Hare WCD. Isolation of Mycoplasma bovis from intact and microinjected preimplantation bovine embryos washed or treated with trypsin or antibiotics. Journal of In Vitro Fertilization and Embryo Transfer 1989;6:236-41.
208. Riddell KP, Stringfellow DA, Pananglia VS. Interaction of Mycoplasma bovis and Mycoplasma bovigenitalum with preimplantation bovine embryos. Theriogenology 1989;32:633-41.
209. Riddell KP, Stringfellow DA, Gray BW, Riddell MG, Galik PK. Antibiotic treatment of bovine embryos. Journal of Assisted Reproduction and Genetics 1993;10:488-91.
210. Thibier M. Le transfert embryonnaire: le moyen le plus sur, au plan sanitaire, d'exchanges de genes. Proceedings of 6th Meeting of European Embryo Transfer Society, Lyon, France, September 1990. p. 67-81.
211. Smits JM, Ducro-Steverink DWB, Steverink PJGM, Merks JWM. Risk assessment of pathogen transmission by porcine embryos with embryo transfer. Proceedings of 52nd Annual Meeting of the European Association for Animal Production, Budapest, Hungary, 26-29 August 2001. PhP6 no. 5, p. 212.