Effects of chromium on activated sludge and on the performance of wastewater treatment plants: A review

Water Research

Volumn 46, Issue 3, 2012, Pages 549-570

  Vaiopoulou, Eleni ^a   Gikas, Petros ^b  

^a East Macedonia and Thrace Periphery   (Greece)

^b TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY OF CRETE   (Greece)

Author keywords

Activated sludge; Chromium; Hexavalent; Inhibition; Stimulation; Trivalent; Wastewater treatment plants

Indexed keywords

ACTIVATED SLUDGE PROCESS; CELL MEMBRANES; CHROMIUM COMPOUNDS; INDUSTRIAL PLANTS; INDUSTRIAL WATER TREATMENT; RECLAMATION; SEWAGE PUMPING PLANTS; TOXICITY; TRACE ELEMENTS; WASTEWATER TREATMENT; WATER TREATMENT PLANTS;

ACTIVATED SLUDGE; CHROMIUM CONCENTRATION; CHROMIUM SPECIES; HEXAVALENT; INHIBITION; NUMBER OF FACTORS; PERFORMANCE; STIMULATION; TRIVALENTS; WASTE WATER TREATMENT PLANTS;

HEAVY METALS;

CHROMIUM; SURFACE WATER; TRACE ELEMENT;

ACTIVATED SLUDGE; CHROMIUM; CONCENTRATION (COMPOSITION); INDUSTRIAL WASTE; MEMBRANE; MOBILITY; OXIDATION; TOXIC MATERIAL; TOXICITY; WASTEWATER; WATER TREATMENT;

ACINETOBACTER; ACTIVATED SLUDGE; ARTHROBACTER; AUREOBASIDIUM; BETAPROTEOBACTERIA; BIOCHEMISTRY; BIOMASS; CANDIDA; ESCHERICHIA COLI; EUGLENA GRACILIS; IC 50; LC 50; LETHAL DOSE; MINIMUM INHIBITORY CONCENTRATION; NONHUMAN; NOSTOC MUSCORUM; OCHROBACTRUM; OXIDATION; PH; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROTOZOON; PSEUDOMONAS; REVIEW; SACCHAROMYCES; SHEWANELLA; SPHAEROTILUS; WASTE WATER; WASTE WATER MANAGEMENT; WASTE WATER TREATMENT PLANT; WATER AND WATER RELATED PHENOMENA; WATER MANAGEMENT;

EID: 84855309918     PISSN: 00431354     EISSN: 18792448     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2011.11.024     Document Type: Review

References (135)

1. Agrawal A., Kumar V., Pandey B.D. Remediation options for the treatment of electroplating and leather tanning effluent containing chromium-a review. Mineral Processing and Extractive Metallurgy Review 2006, 27:99-130.
2. Ahmad W.A., Zakaria Z.A., Z.Z., Surif S. Influence of Cr(VI) on Cr(VI) reduction at different growth phases of Acinetobacter haemolyticus. Environmental Engineering Science 2009, 26:1275-1278.
3. Alkan U., Anderson G.K., Ince O. Toxicity of trivalent chromium in the anaerobic digestion process. Water Research 1996, 30:731-741.
4. Almanza G., Cruz L.E., Diaz-Baez M.C. Rapid toxicity assessment of water-soluble chemicals using a fed-batch reactor technique. Environmental Toxicology and Water Quality: An International Journal 1996, 11:273-276.
5. Altas L. Effects of chromium (VI) on activity of ureolytic culture. Journal of Chemical Technology and Biotechnology 2009, 84(227):229-235.
6. Baral A., Engelken R., Stephens W., Farris J., Hannigan R. Evaluation of aquatic toxicities of chromium and chromium-containing effluents in reference to chromium electroplating industries. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 2006, 50:496-502.
7. Barnhart J. Occurrences, uses, and properties of chromium. Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology 1997, 26:S3-S7.
8. Barth E.F., Ettinger M.B., Salotto B.V., Mc Dermott G.N. Summary report on the effects of heavy metals on the biological treatment process. Journal of Water Pollution Control Federation 1965, 37:86-96.
9. Baruthio F. Toxic effects of chromium and its compounds. Biological Trace Element Research 1992, 32:145-153.
10. Basu S.K., Chakraborty S. Effluent treatment in leather processing industries. Indian Journal of Environment Protection 1989, 9:904-908.
11. Bencheike-Latmani R., Obraztsova A., Mackey M.R., Ellisman M.H., Tebo B.M. Toxicity of Cr(III) to Shewanella sp. strain MR-4 during Cr(VI) reduction. Environmental Science & Tehnology 2007, 41:214-220.
12. Beneitez P., Ayllon S. Extraction studies on the system between bis(2-ethyl hexyl) phosphoric acid and chromium(III) in several aqueous solutions. Solvent Extraction and Ion Exchange 1987, 5:597-609.
13. Benka-Coker M.O., Ekundayo J.A. Effects of heavy metals on growth of species of Micrococcus and Pseudomonas in a Crude Oil/Mineral salts medium. Bioresource Technology 1998, 66:241-245.
14. Boswell C.D., Dick R.E., Macaskie L.E. The effect of heavy metals and other environmental conditions on the anaerobic phosphate metabolism of Actinobacter johnsonii. Microbiology 1999, 145:1711-1720.
15. Branco R., Alpoim M.C., Morais P.V. Ochroactrum tritici strain 5bvl1-characterization of a Cr(VI)-resistant and Cr(VI)-reducing strain. Canadian Journal of Microbiology 2004, 50:697-703.
16. Bruins M.R., Kapil S., Oehme F.W. Microbial resistance to metals in the environment. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety 2000, 45:198-207.
17. Bruzzone G., Ghelli G., Perrone D. Process for Recovering Chromic Anhydride from Exhausted Aqueous Chromium Plating Bath Solutions with Exploitation of the Recovered Chromium 1992, Luigi Stoppani, S.p.A., Italy. U.S. Patent (Ed.).
18. Camargo F.A.O., Okeke B.C., Bento F.M., Frankenberger W.T. Diversity of chromium-resistant bacteria isolated from soils contaminated with dichromate. Applied Soil Ecology 2005, 29:193-202.
19. Caravelli A.H., Giannuzzi L., Zaritzky N.E. Reduction of hexavalent chromium by Sphaerotilus natans a filamentous micro-organism present in activated sludge. Journal of Hazardous Materials 2008, 156:214-222.
20. Cecen F., Semerci N., A.G.G. Inhibition of respiration and distribution of Cd, Pb, Hg, Ag and Cr species in a nitrifying sludge. Journal of Hazardous Materials 2010, 178:619-627.
21. Cervantes C., Campos-Garcia J. Reduction and Efflux of Chromate by Bacteria. Molecular Microbiology of Heavy Metals 2007, Springer-Verlag, Berlin Heidelberg, pp. 407-419.
22. Chang S.Y., Huang J.C., Liu Y.C. Effects of Cd(II) and Cu(II) on a Biofilm system. Journal of Environmental Engineering 1986, 112:94-104.
23. Chen Y., Gu G. Preliminary studies on continuous chromium(VI) biological removal from wastewater by anaerobic-aerobic activated sludge process. Bioresource Technology 2005, 96:1713-1721.
24. Cheng L., Li X., Jiang R., Wang C., Yin H.-B. Effects of Cr(VI) on the performance and kinetics of the activated sludge process. Bioresource Technology 2011, 102:797-804.
25. Chua H. Effects of trace chromium on organic adsorption capacity and organic removal in activated sludge. The Science of the Total Environment 1998, 214:239-245.
26. Chua H., Yu P.H.F., Sin S.N., Cheung M.W.L. Sub-lethal effects of heavy metals on activated sludge microorganisms. Chemosphere 1999, 39:2681-2962.
27. Cokgor E.U., Ozdemir S., Karahan O., Insel G., Orhon D. Critical appraisal of respirometric methods for metal inhibition on activated sludge. Journal of Hazardous Materials 2007, 139:332-339.
28. da Silva Oliveira A., Bocio A., Beltramini Trevilato T.M., Magosso Takayanagui A.M., Domingo J.L., Segura-Munoz S.I. Heavy metals in untreated /treated urban effluent and sludge from biological wastewater treatment plant. Environmental Science and Pollution Research 2007, 14:483-489.
29. Dalzell D.J.B., Alte S., Aspichueta E., de la Sota A., Etxebarria J., Gutierrez M., Hoffmann C.C., Sales D., Obst U., Christofi N. A comparison of five rapid direct toxicity assessment methods to determine toxicity of pollutants to activated sludge. Chemosphere 2002, 47:535-545.
30. Davis M.C., Vincent J.B. Chromium oligopeptide activates insulin receptor tyrosine kinase activity. Biochemistry 1997, 36:4382-4385.
31. Dawson P.S.S., Jenkins S.H. The oxygen requirements of activated sludge determined by manometric methods. II: chemical factors affecting oxygen uptake. Sewage and Industrial Wastes 1950, 22:490-507.
32. Deptula C. Synergistic and Antagonistic Effect in the Extraction of Chromium(VI) with Mixture of Tri-n-octylamine and Alkylphosphoric Acids from Mineral Acid Solutions 1971, Society of Chemical Industry, The Hague, International Solvent Extraction Conference, pp. 638-655.
33. Dilek F.B., Gökçay C.F., Yetis U. Combined effects of Ni(II) and Cr(VI) on activated sludge. Water Research 1998, 32:303-312.
34. Farabegoli G., Carucci A., Majone M., Rolle E. Biological treatment of tannery wastewater in the presence of chromium. Journal of Environmental Management 2004, 71:345-349.
35. Ferro Orozco A.M., Contreras E.M., Zaritzky N.E. Cr(VI) reduction capacity of activated sludge as affected by nitrogen and carbon sources, microbial acclimation and cell multiplication. Journal of Hazardous Materials 2010, 176:657-665.
36. Francisco R., Alpoim M.C., Morais P.V. Diversity of chromium-resistant and -reducing bacteria in a chromium-contaminated activated sludge. Journal of Applied Microbiology 2002, 92:837-843.
37. Fraser B.G., Pritzker M.D., Legge R.L. Development of liquid membrane pertraction for the removal and recovery of chromium from aqueous effluents. Separation Science and Technology 1994, 29:2097-2116.
38. Fukushima M., Nakayasu K., Tanaka S.H.N. Chromium (III) binding abilities of humic acids. Analytica Chimica Acta 1995, 317:195-206.
39. Ganguli A., Tripathi A.k Survival and chromate reducing ability of Pseudmonas aeruginosa in industrial effluents. Letters in Applied Microbiology 1999, 28:76-80.
40. Gharieb M.M., Gadd G.M. Evidence for the involvement of vacuolar activity in metal(loid) tolerance: vacuolar-lacking and defective mutants of Saccharomyces cerevisiae display higher sensitivity to chromate, tellurite and selenite. BioMetals 1998, 11:101-106.
41. Gharieb M.M., Gadd G.M. Role of glutathione in detoxification of metal(loid)s by Saccharomyces cerevisiae. BioMetals 2004, 17:183-188.
42. Gikas P. Single and combined effects of nickel (Ni(II)) and Cobalt (Co(II)) ions on activated sludge and other aerobic microorganisms: a review. Journal of Hazardous Materials 2008, 159:187-203.
43. Gikas P., Romanos P. Activated Sludge Growth Stimulation and Inhibition by Cr(III), Cr(VI), Ni(II) and Cd(II) 2006, 8th Conference on the Protection and Restoration of the Environment, (Chania, Greece).
44. Gikas P., Romanos P. Effects of tri-valent (Cr(III)) and hexa-valent (Cr(VI)) chromium on the growth rate of activated sludge. Journal of Hazardous Materials 2006, B133:212-217.
45. Ginn T., Sengor S.S., Barua S., Moberly J., Peyton B. Metal Toxicity Effects on Microbial Growth and Degradation 2006, Slovenia and U.S. Workshop on Environmental Science and Engineering, Ljubljana, Slovenia, pp. 39-40.
46. Gökçay C.F., Yetiş U. Effect of chromium (VI) on activated sludge. Water Research 1991, 25:65-73.
47. Görgun E., Insel G., Artan N., Orhon D. Model evaluation of temperature dependency for carbon and nitrogen removal in a full-scale activated sludge plant treating leather-tanning wastewater. Journal of Environmental Science and Health Part A 2007, 42:747-756.
48. Guillén-Jiménez F.d.M., Morales-Barrera L., Morales-Jiménez J., Hernández-Rodríguez C.H., Christiani-Urbina E. Modulation of tolerance to Cr(VI) and Cr(VI) reduction by sulfate ion in a Candida yeast strain isolated from tannery wastewater. Journal of Industrial Microbiology and Biotechnology 2008, 35:1277-1287.
49. Gutierrez M., Etxebarria J., de las Fuentes L. Evaluation of wastewater toxicity: comparative study between microtox and activated sludge oxygen uptake inhibition. Water Research 2002, 36:919-924.
50. Han X., Wong Y.S., Wong M.H., Tam N.F.Y. Biosorption and bioreduction of Cr(VI) by a micro algal isolate Chlorella miniata. Journal of Hazardous Materials 2007, 146:65-72.
51. Hartenstein R., Neuhauser E.F., Narahara A. Effects of heavy metal and other elemental additives to activated sludge on growth of Eisenia foetida. Journal of Environmental 1981, 10:372-376.
52. Heukelekian H., Gellman I. Studies of biochemical oxidation by Direct methods. Sewage and Industrial Wastes 1955, 27:70-84.
53. Holleman A.F., Wiberg E., Wiberg N. Lehrbuch der anorganischen Chemie 1995, Walter deGruyter.
54. Imai A., Gloyna E.F. Effects of pH and oxidation state of chromium on the behavior of chromium in the activated sludge process. Water Research 1990, 24:1143-1150.
55. Imai A., Gloyna E.F. Cr(III) in activated sludge. Journal of Environmental Engineering 1993, 119:137-158.
56. Ishibashi Y., Cervantes C., Silver S. Chromium reduction in pseudomonas putida. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 1990, 56:2268-2270.
57. Jenkins S.H., Hewitt C.H. The effect of chromate on the purification of sewage by treatment in bacterial filters. Journals of The Indian Chemical Society 1940, 54:41.
58. Jönsson K., Aspichueta E., de la Sota A., Jansen J.l.C. Evaluation of nitrification-inhibition measurements. Water Science and Technology 2001, 43:201-208.
59. Kao W.-C., Huang C.-C., Chang J.-S. Biosorption of nickel, chromium and zinc by MerP-expressing recombinant Escherichia coli. Journal of Hazardous Materials 2008, 158:100-106.
60. Kelly C.J., Tumsaroj N., Lajoie C.A. Assessing wastewater metal toxicity with bacterial bioluminescence in a bench-scale wastewater treatment system. Water Research 2004, 38:423-431.
61. Klonowska A., Clark M.E., Thieman S.B., Giles B.J., Wall J.D., Fields M.W. Hexavalent chromium reduction in Desulfovibrio vulgaris hildenborough causes transitory inhibition of sulfate reduction and cell growth. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology 2008, 78:1007-1016.
62. Kocberber Kilic N., Dönmez G. Environmental conditions affecting exopolysaccharide production by Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Micrococcus sp. and Ochrobactrum sp. Journal of Hazardous Materials 2008, 154:1019-1024.
63. Kolesnikov V.A., Shalyt E.A., Aarinola P.K. Complex Technology of Electrochemical Water Treatment with Regeneration of Valuable Components in Electrochemical Plating Production Electrochemistry in Mineral and Metal Processing III Conference 1992, The Electrochemical Society Inc., St. Louis, Missouri, USA, pp. 504-507.
64. Krauter P., Martinelli R., Williams K., Martins S. Removal of Cr(VI) from ground water by Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Biodegradation 1996, 7:277-286.
65. Krishna K.R., Philip L. Bioremediation of Cr(VI) in contaminated soils. Journal of Hazardous Materials 2005, 121:109-117.
66. Lamb A., Tollefson E.L. Toxic effects of cuppric, chromate, and chromic ions on biological oxidation. Water Research 1973, 7:599-613.
67. Leta S., Assefa F., Gumaelius L., Dalhammar G. Biological nitrogen and organic matter removal from tannery wastewater in pilot plant operations in Ethiopia. Environmental Biotechnology 2004, 66:333-339.
68. Levinaa A., Mulyania I., Lay P.A. Chapter 11-Redox Chemistry and Biological Activities of Chromium(III) Complexes 2007, 225-256. The Nutritional Biochemistry of Chromium (III) Elsevier. J.B. Vincent (Ed.).
69. Levine A.D., Case J.D. Effects of chemicals on microorganisms. Water Environment Research 1997, 69:874-877.
70. i) determination in activated sludge. Water Research 1985, 19:671-674.
71. 6+ using microbial cell. Process Biochemistry 2008, 43:1352-1358.
72. Liu Y., Lam M.C., Fan P. Adsorption of heavy metals by EPS of activated sludge. Water Science and Technology 2001, 43:59-66.
73. Liu Y., Feng B., Fan T., Zhou H., Li X. Tolerance and removal of chromium (VI) by Bacillus sp. strain YB-1 isolated from electroplating sludge. Transactions of Nonferrous Metals Society of China 2008, 18:480-487.
74. Losi M.E., Amrhein C., Frankenberger W.T. Factors affecting chemical and biological reduction of Cr(VI) in soil. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 1994, 13:1727-1735.
75. Lowe K.L., Straube W., Little B., Jones-Meehan J. Aerobic and anaerobic reduction of Cr(VI) by Shewanella oneidensis, effect of cationic metals, sorbing agents and mixed microbial cultures. Acta Biotecnologica 2003, 23:161-178.
76. Madoni P., Davoli D., Gorbi G., Vescovi L. Toxic effects of heavy metals on the activated sludge protozoan community. Water Research 1996, 30:135-141.
77. Madoni P., Davoli D., Guglielmi L. Response of SOUR and AUR to heavy metal contamination in activated sludge. Water Research 1999, 33:2459-2464.
78. Mariscal A., Garcia A., Carnero M., Gomez J., Pinedo A., Fernandez-Crehuet J. Evaluation of the toxicity of several heavy metals by fluorescent bacterial bioassay. Journal of Applied Toxicology 1995, 15:103-107.
79. Massara H., Mulligan C.N., Hadjinicolaou J. Hexavalent chromium removal by viable, granular anaerobic biomass. Bioresource Technology 2008, 99:8637-8642.
80. VI) on the growth rate of denitrifying bacteria. Water Research 1994, 28:1981-1985.
81. Mazierski J. Effect of chromium (VI) on the growth rate of activated sludge bacteria. Water Research 1995, 29:1479-1482.
82. Middleton S.S., Latmani R.B., Mackey M.R., Ellisman M.H., Tebo B.M., Criddle C.S. Cometabolism of Cr(VI) by Shewanella oneidensis MR-1 produces cell-associated reduced chromium and inhibits growth. Biotechnology and Bioengineering 2003, 83:627-636.
83. Mishra S., Doble M. Novel chromium tolerant microorganisms: isolation, characterization and their biosorption capacity. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety 2008, 71:874-879.
84. Molokwane P.E., Meli K.C., Nkhalambayausi-Chirwa E.M. Chromium (VI) reduction in activated sludge bacteria exposed to high chromium loading: brits culture (South Africa). Water Research 2008, 42(17):4538-4548.
85. Moore W.A., Mc Dermott G.N., Post M.A., Ettinger M.B. Effects of chromium on the activated sludge process. Journal of Water Pollution Control Federation 1961, 33:54-72.
86. Morales-Barrera L., Guillén-Jiménez F., Ortiz-Moreno A., Villegas-Garrido T.L., Sandoval-Cabrera A., Hernández-Rodríguez C.H., Cristiani-Urbina E. Isolation, identification and characterization of a Hypocrea tawa strain with high Cr(VI) reduction potential. Biochemical Engineering Journal 2008, 40:284-292.
87. Morisset P., Oswald J.W., Draper C.R., Pinner R. Chromium Plating 1954, Robert Draper, Teddington, UK.
88. Mowat A. Measurement of metal toxicity by biochemical oxygen demand. Journal of Water Pollution Control Federation 1976, 48:853-866.
89. Muttamara S., Islam S. Effect of Chromium on Activated-sludge Process Performance 1983, Butterworth Publishers, Fifteenth Mid-Atlantic Industrial Waste Conference.
90. Nies D.H. Microbial heavy-metal resistance. Applied and Microbial Biotechnology 1999, 51:730-750.
91. Nies D.H., Silver S. Ion efflux systems involved in bacterial metal resistances. Journal of Industrial Microbiology and Biotechnology 1995, 14:186-199.
92. Oliver B.G., Cosgrove E.G. The efficiency of heavy metal removal by a conventional activated sludge treatment plant. Water Research 1974, 8:869-874.
93. Pal A., Paul A.K. Microbial extracellular polymeric substances: central elements in heavy metal bioremediation. Indian Journal of Microbiology 2008, 48:49-64.
94. Papp J.F. Mineral Commodity Summaries 2010: Chromium 2010, U.S. Department of the Interior U.S. Geological Survey, pp. 42-43.
95. Parvathi K., Nagendran R. Functional groups on waste beer yeast involved in chromium biosorption from electroplating effluent. World Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology 2008, 24:2865-2870.
96. Paul A.K., Pal A. Aerobic chromate reduction by chromium-resistant bacteria isolated from serpentine soil. Microbiology Research 2004, 159:347-354.
97. Petruzzelli D., Passino R., Tiravanti G. Ion exchange process for chromium removal and recovery from tannery wastes. Industrial Engineering and Chemical Research 1995, 34:2612-2617.
98. Philip L., Iyengar L., Venkobachar C. Cr(VI) reduction by Bacillus coagulans isolated from contaminated soils. Journal of Environmental Engineering 1998, 124:1165-1170.
99. Pollis R.E., Reid A.L., Weathers L.J. Effects of chemicals on microorganisms. Water Environment Research 1998, 70:915-921.
100. Poon C.P.C., Bhayani K.H. Metal toxicity to sewage organisms. Journal of Sanitary Engineering Division, ASCE 1971, 97:161-169.
101. 2 fixation, and nitrogenase activity of nostoc muscorum. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety 1989, 17:75-85.
102. Rai D., Eary L.E., Zahara J.M. Environmental chemistry of chromium. The Science of the Total Environment 1989, 86:15-23.
103. Ramírez-Díaz M.I., Díaz-Perez C., Vargas E., Riveros-Rosas H., Campos-García J., Cervantes C. Mechanisms of bacterial resistance to chromium compounds. Biometals 2008, 21:321-332.
104. Rehman A., Shakoori F.R., Shakoori A.R. Heavy metal resistant freshwater ciliate, Euplotes mutabilis, isolated from industrial effluents has potential to decontaminate wastewater of toxic metals. Bioresource Technology 2008, 99:3890-3895.
105. Rochetta I., Ruiz L.B., Rios de Molina M.C., Confrorti V. Chromium toxicity to Euglena gracilis strains depending on the physicochemical properties of the culture medium. Bulledin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 2006, 76:512-521.
106. Saida S., Abdelkader G. Inhibition of chromium(III) on the activated sludge activity. Environmental Technology 1994, 15:255-262.
107. Samaras P., Papadimitriou C.A., Vavoulidou D., Yiangou M., Sakellaropoulos G.P. Effect of hexavalent chromium on the activated sludge process and on the sludge protozoan community. Bioresource Technology 2009, 100:38-43.
108. Sengor S.S., Barua S., Gikas P., Ginn T.R., Peyton B., Sani R.K., Spycher S.F. Influence of heavy metals on microbial growth kinetics including lag time: mathematical Modeling and experimental Verification. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 2009, 28:2020-2029.
109. Sengor, S.S., Gikas, P., Ginn, T.R., Moberly, J., Peyton, B., in press. Comparison of Single and Joint effects of Zn and Cu in continuous flow and batch reactors. Journal of Chemical Technology and Biotechnology.
110. Shen H., Wang Y.-T. Biological reduction of chromium by E. Coli. Journal of Environmental Engineering 1994, 120:560-572.
111. Silver S. Bacterial resistances to toxic metal ions - a review. Gene 1996, 179:9-19.
112. Sin S.N., Chua H., Lo W., Yu P.H.F. Effects of trace levels of copper, chromium, and zinc ions on the performance of activated sludge. Applied Biochemistry and Biotechnology 2000, 84-86:487-500.
113. Stasinakis A.S., Mamais D., Thomaidis N.S., Lekkas T.D. Effect of chromium (VI) on bacterial kinetics of heterotrophic biomass of activated sludge. Water Research 2002, 36:3341-3349.
114. Stasinakis A.S., Thomaidis N.S., Mamais D., Papanikolaou E.C., Tsakon A., Lekkas T.D. Effects of chromium (VI) addition on activated sludge process. Water Research 2003, 37:2140-2148.
115. Stasinakis A.S., Thomaidis N.S., Mamais D., Karivali M., Lekkas T.D. Chromium species Behaviour in activated sludge process. Chemosphere 2003, 52:1059-1067.
116. Stasinakis A.S., Thomaidis N.S., Mamais D., Lekkas T.D. Investigation of Cr(VI) reduction in continuous-flow activated sludge systems. Chemosphere 2004, 57:1069-1077.
117. Stearns D.M. Chapter 3-Multiple hypotheses for chromium(III) biochemistry: why the essentiality of chromium(III) is still questioned. The Nutritional Biochemistry of Chromium (III) 2007, 57-70. Elsevier. J.B. Vincent (Ed.).
118. Sterritt R.M., Lester J.N. The influence of sludge age on heavy metal removal in the activated sludge process. Water Research 1981, 15:59-65.
119. Sudo R., Shuichi A. Effect of copper and hexavalent chromium on the specific growth rate of ciliata isolated from activated sludge. Water Research 1973, 7:1301-1307.
120. Sultan S., Hasnain S. Characterization of an ochrobactrum intermedium strain STCr-5 manifesting high level Cr(VI) resistance and reduction potential. Enzyme and Microbial Technology 2006, 39:883-888.
121. Tandukar M., Huber S.J., Onodera T., Pavlostathis S.G. Biological chromium(VI) reduction in the cathode of a microbial fuel cell. Environmental Science & Technology 2009, 43:8159-8165.
122. Tchobanoglous G., Burton F.L., Stensel H.D. Wastewater Engineering, Treatment and Reuse 2003, McGraw-Hill.
123. Theopold K.H. Organochromium(III) chemistry: a neglected oxidation state. Accounts of Chemical Research 1990, 23:263-270.
124. Tsapakos M.J., Wetterhahn K.E. The interaction of chromium with nucleic acids. Chemico-Biological Interactions 1983, 46:265-277.
125. Uzel A., Ozdemir G. Metal biosorption capacity of the organic solvent tolerant Pseudomonas fluorescens TEM08. Bioresource Technology 2008, 100:542-548.
126. van Heerden P.V., Jenkins I.R., Woods W.P.D., Rossi E., Cameron P.D. Death by tanning-a case of fatal basic chromium sulphate poisoning. Intensive Care Medicine 1994, 20:145-147.
127. Vankova S., Kupec J., Hoffmann J. Toxicity of chromium to activated sludge. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety 1999, 42:16-21.
128. Memoir on a new metallic acid which exists in the red lead of Sibiria 1798, L.N. Vauquelin (Ed.).
129. Villegas L.B., Fernández P.M., Amoroso M.J., de Figueroa L.I.C. Chromate removal by yeasts isolated from sediments of a tanning factory and a mine site in Argentina. BioMetals 2008, 21:591-600.
130. Vogel A.I. Vogel's Qualitative Inorganic Analysis 1987, Longman Scientific and Technical, England.
131. Wang Y.-T., Xiao C. Factors affecting hexavalent chromium reduction in pure of bacteria. Water Research 1995, 29:2467-2474.
132. Wong P.K., Chang L. Effects of copper, chromium and nickel on growth, photosynthesis and chlorophyll a synthesis of Chlorella pyrenoidosa 251. Environmental Pollution 1991, 72:127-139.
133. Wong K.-Y., Zhang M.-Q., Li X.-M., Lo W. A luminescence-based scanning respirometer for heavy metal toxicity monitoring. Biosensors and Bioelectronics 1997, 12:125-133.
134. Xu Y.B., Sun S.Y. Effect of stable weak magnetic field on Cr(VI) bio-removal in anaerobic SBR system. Biodegradation 2008, 19:455-462.
135. Yetiş ü, Demirer G.N., Gökçay C.F. Effect of chromium(VI) on the biomass yield of activated sludge. Enzyme and Microbial Technology 1999, 25:48-54.