Blue again: Perturbational effects of antidepressants suggest monoaminergic homeostasis in major depression

Frontiers in Psychology

Volumn 2, Issue JUL, 2011, Pages

  Andrews, Paul W ^a,b   Kornstein, Susan G ^c   Halberstadt, Lisa J ^a   Gardner, Charles O ^a   Neale, Michael C ^a  

^a VIRGINIA COMMONWEALTH UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b MCMASTER UNIVERSITY   (Canada)

^c VIRGINIA COMMONWEALTH UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

Antidepressant medication; Discontinuation; Homeostasis; Major depression; Meta analysis; Oppositional tolerance; Relapse

Indexed keywords

EID: 83455206931     PISSN: None     EISSN: 16641078     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2011.00159     Document Type: Article

References (181)

1. Alexopoulos, G. S., Meyers, B. S., Young, R. C., Kalayam, B., Kakuma, T., Gabrielle, M., Sirey, J. A., and Hull, J. (2000). Executive dysfunction and long-term outcomes of geriatric depression. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 57, 285-290.
2. Allen, N. B., and Badcock, P. B. T. (2003). The social risk hypothesis of depressed mood: evolutionary, psychosocial, and neurobiological perspectives. Psychol. Bull. 129, 887-913.
3. Allen, N. B., and Badcock, P. B. T. (2006). Darwinian models of depression: a review of evolutionary accounts of mood and mood disorders. Prog. Neuropsychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry 30, 815-826.
4. Amat, J., Aleksejev, R. M., Paul, E., Watkins, L. R., and Maier, S. F. (2010). Behavioral control over shock blocks behavioral and neurochemical effects of later social defeat. Neuroscience 165, 1031-1038.
5. Amat, J., Baratta, M. V., Paul, E., Bland, S. T., Watkins, L. R., and Maier, S. F. (2005). Medial prefrontal cortex determines how stressor controllability affects behavior and dorsal raphe nucleus. Nat. Neurosci. 8, 365-371.
6. Amat, J., Paul, E., Zarza, C., Watkins, L. R., and Maier, S. F. (2006). Previous experience with behavioral control over stress blocks the behavioral and dorsal raphe nucleus activating effects of later uncontrollable stress: role of the ventral medial prefrontal cortex. J. Neurosci. 26, 13264-13272.
7. American Psychiatric Association (APA). (2000). (DSM-IV-TR) Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th Edn. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press, Inc.
8. Amsterdam, J. D., and Bodkin, J. A. (2006). Selegiline transdermal system in the prevention of relapse of major depressive disorder: a 52-week, double-blind, placebo-substitution, parallel-group clinical trial. J. Clin. Psychopharmacol. 26, 579-586.
9. Andrews, P. W., Aggen, S. H., Miller, G. F., Radi, C., Dencoff, J. E., and Neale, M. C. (2007). The functional design of depression's influence on attention: a preliminary test of alternative controlprocess mechanisms. Evol. Psychol. 5, 584-604.
10. Andrews, P. W., and Thomson, J. A. Jr. (2009). The bright side of being blue: depression as an adaptation for analyzing complex problems. Psychol. Rev. 116, 620-654.
11. Anisman, H., and Matheson, K. (2005). Stress, depression, and anhedonia: caveats concerning animal models. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 29, 525-546.
12. Anton, S. F., Robinson, D. S., Roberts, D. L., Kensler, T. T., English, P. A., and Archibald, D. G. (1994). Long-term treatment of depression with nefazodone. Psychopharmacol. Bull. 30, 165-169.
13. Badcock, P. B. T., and Allen, N. B. (2003). Adaptive social reasoning in depressed mood and depressive vulnerability. Cogn. Emot. 17, 647-670.
14. Baldessarini, R. J., Ghaemi, S. N., and Viguera, A. C. (2002). Tolerance in antidepressant treatment. Psychother. Psychosom. 71, 177-179.
15. Bano, S., Gitay, M., Ara, I., and Badawy, A. (2010). Acute effects of serotonergic antidepressants on tryptophan metabolism and corticosterone levels in rats. Pak. J. Pharm. Sci. 23, 266-272.
16. Baratta, M. V., Zarza, C. M., Gomez, D. M., Campeau, S., Watkins, L. R., and Maier, S. F. (2009). Selective activation of dorsal raphe nucleus-projecting neurons in the ventral medial prefrontal cortex by controllable stress. Eur. J. Neurosci. 30, 1111-1116.
17. Beck, A. T., and Beamesderfer, A. (1974). "Assessment of depression: the depression inventory," in Modern Problems in Pharmacopsychiatry, ed. P. Pichot (Basel: Karger), 151-169.
18. Bel, N., and Artigas, F. (1995). In vivo evidence for the reversible action of the monoamine oxidase inhibitor brofaromine on 5-hydroxytryptamine release in rat brain. Naunyn Schmiedebergs Arch. Pharmacol. 351, 475-482
19. Berton, O., and Nestler, E. J. (2006). New approaches to antidepressant drug discovery: beyond monoamines. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 7, 137-151.
20. Best, J., Nijhout, H. F., and Reed, M. (2010). Serotonin synthesis, release and reuptake in terminals: a mathematical model. Theor. Biol. Med. Model. doi: 10.1186/1742-4682-7-34. Bongiovanni, R., Newbould, E., and Jaskiw, G. E. (2008). Tyrosine depletion lowers dopamine synthesis and desipramine-induced prefrontal cortex catecholamine levels. Brain Res. 1190, 39-48.
21. Brandts, C. H., Ndjave, M., Graninger, W., and Kremsner, P. G. (1997). Effect of paracetamol on parasite clearance time in Plasmodium falciparum malaria. Lancet 350, 704-709.
22. Bremner, J. D., and Smith, W. T. (1996). Org 3770 vs amitriptyline in the continuation treatment of depression: a placebo controlled trial. Eur. J. Psychiatry 10, 5-15.
23. Bursztajn, H. J., and Brodsky, A. (1998). Ethical and legal dimensions of benzodiazepine prescription: a commentary. Psychiatr. Ann. 28, 121-128.
24. Bymaster, F. P., Zhang, W., Carter, P. A., Shaw, J., Chernet, E., Phebus, L., Wong, D. T., and Perry, K. W. (2002). Fluoxetine, but not other selective serotonin uptake inhibitors, increases norepinephrine and dopamine extracellular levels in prefrontal cortex. Psychopharmacology (Berl.) 160, 353-361.
25. Byrne, S. E., and Rothschild, A. J. (1998). Loss of antidepressant efficacy during maintenance therapy: possible mechanisms and treatments. J. Clin. Psychiatry 59, 279-288.
26. Campbell, I., and Marshall, E. (1974). Effects of chronic regimes of phenelzine, tranylcypromine and imipramine on rat brain noradrenaline and 5-hydroxytryptamine. J. Pharmacol. 5, 14-15.
27. Cheung, A., Kusumakar, V., Kutcher, S., Dubo, E., Garland, J., Weiss, M., Kiss, A., and Levitt, A. (2008). Maintenance study for adolescent depression. J. Child Adolesc. Psychopharmacol. 18, 389-394.
28. Chouinard, G. (2004). Issues in the clinical use of benzodiazepines: potency, withdrawal, and rebound. J. Clin. Psychiatry 65, 7-12.
29. Claghorn, J. L., and Feighner, J. P. (1993). A double-blind comparison of paroxetine with imipramine in the longterm treatment of depression. J. Clin. Psychopharmacol. 13, S23-S27.
30. Cook, B. L., Helms, P. M., Smith, R. E., and Tsai, M. (1986). Unipolar depression in the elderly: reoccurrence on discontinuation on tricyclic antidepressants. J. Affect. Disord. 10, 91-94.
31. Coppen, A., Ghose, K., Montgomery, S., Rao, V. A. R., Bailey, J., and Jorgensen, A. (1978). Continuation therapy with amitriptyline in depression. Br. J. Psychiatry 133, 28-33.
32. Coryell, W., Endicott, J., Winokur, G., Akiskal, H., Solomon, D., Leon, A., Mueller, T., and Shea, T. (1995). Characteristics and significance of untreated major depressive disorder. Am. J. Psychiatry 152, 1124-1129.
33. Cryan, J. F., O'Leary, O. F., Jin, S. H., Friedland, J. C., Ouyang, M., Hirsch, B. R., Page, M. E., Dalvi, A., Thomas, S. A., and Lucki, I. (2004). Norepinephrinedeficient mice lack responses to antidepressant drugs, including selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 101, 8186-8191.
34. Dantzer, R. (2001). Cytokine-induced sickness behavior: where do we stand? Brain Behav. Immun. 15, 7-24.
35. Davidson, J., and Raft, D. (1984). Use of phenelzine in continuation therapy. Neuropsychobiology 11, 191-194.
36. Dawson, L. A., and Li, P. (2003). Effects of 5-HT6 receptor blockade on the neurochemical outcome of antidepressant treatment in the frontal cortex of the rat. J. Neural Transm. 110, 577-590.
37. Detke, M. J., Wiltse, C. G., Mallinckrodt, C. H., McNamara, R. K., Demitrack, M. A., and Bitter, I. (2004). Duloxetine in the acute and long-term treatment of major depressive disorder: a pla-
38. ceboand paroxetine-controlled trial. Eur. Neuropsychopharmacol. 14, 457-470.
39. Dobson, K. S., Hollon, S. D., Dimidjian, S., Schmaling, K. B., Kohlenberg, R. J., Gallop, R. J., Rizvi, S. L., Gollan, J. K., Dunner, D. L., and Jacobson, N. S. (2008). Randomized trial of behavioral activation, cognitive therapy, and antidepressant medication in the prevention of relapse and recurrence in major depression. J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 76, 468-477.
40. Doogan, D. P., and Caillard, V. (1992). Sertraline in the prevention of depression. Br. J. Psychiatry 160, 217-222.
41. Drevets, W. C. (1998). Functional neuroimaging studies of depression: the anatomy of melancholia. Annu. Rev. Med. 49, 341.
42. Duman, R. S. (2004). Depression: a case of neuronal life and death? Biol. Psychiatry 56, 140-145.
43. Duman, R. S., and Monteggia, L. M. (2006). A neurotrophic model for stress-related mood disorders. Biol. Psychiatry 59, 1116-1127
44. Dziedzicka-Wasylewska, M., Faron-Gorecka, A., Kusmider, M., Drozdowska, E., Rogoz, Z., Siwanowicz, J., Caron, M. G., and Bönisch, H. (2006). Effect of antidepressant drugs in mice lacking the norepinephrine transporter. Neuropsychopharmacology 31, 2424-2432.
45. Emslie, G. J., Kennard, B. D., Mayes, T. L., Nightingale-Teresi, J., Carmody, T., Hughes, C. W., Rush, A. J., Tao, R., and Rintelmann, J. W. (2008). Fluoxetine versus placebo in preventing relapse of major depression in children and adolescents. Am. J. Psychiatry 165, 459-467.
46. Entsuah, A. R., Rudolph, R. L., Hackett, D., and Miska, S. (1996). Efficacy of venlafaxine and placebo during long-term treatment of depression: a pooled analysis of relapse rates. Int. Clin. Psychopharmacol. 11, 137-145.
47. Eric, L. (1991). A prospective, doubleblind, comparative, multicentre study of paroxetine and placebo in preventing recurrent major depressive episodes. Biol. Psychiatry 29, 254S-255S.
48. Fava, G. A., and Offidani, E. (2011). The mechanisms of tolerance in antidepressant action. Prog. Neuropsychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry. doi: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2010.07.026. [Epub ahead of print].
49. Fava, M. (2006). Prospective studies of adverse events related to antidepressant discontinuation. J. Clin. Psychiatry 67, 14-21.
50. Finberg, J. P. M., Pacak, K., Kopin, I. J., and Goldstein, D. S. (1993). Chronic inhibition of monoamine oxidase type A increases noradrenaline release in rat frontal cortex. Naunyn Schmiedebergs Arch. Pharmacol. 347, 500-505.
51. Fournier, J. C., DeRubeis, R. J., Hollon, S. D., Dimidjian, S., Amsterdam, J. D., Shelton, R. C., and Fawcett, J. (2010). Antidepressant drug effects and depression severity: a patient-level meta-analysis. JAMA 303, 47-53.
52. Fuller, R. W., Perry, K. W., and Molloy, B. B. (1974). Effect of an uptake inhibitor on serotonin metabolism in rat brain: studies with 3-paratrifluoromethylphenoxy)-n-methyl- 3-phenylpropylamine (Lilly 110140). Life Sci. 15, 1161-1171.
53. Geddes, J. R., Carney, S. M., Davies, C., Furukawa, T. A., Kupfer, D. J., Frank, E., and Goodwin, G. M. (2003). Relapse prevention with antidepressant drug treatment in depressive disorders: a systematic review. Lancet 361, 653-661.
54. Georgotas, A., Mccue, R. E., and Cooper, T. B. (1989). A placebo-controlled comparison of nortriptyline and phenelzine in maintenance therapy of elderly depressed-patients. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 46, 783-786.
55. Gilaberte, I., Montejo, A. L., de la Gandara, J., Perez-Sola, V., Bernardo, M., Massana, J., Martin-Santos, R., Santiso, A., Noguera, R., Casais, L., Perez-Camo, V., Arias, M., Judge, R., and Fluoxetine Long-Term Study Group. (2001). Fluoxetine in the prevention of depressive recurrences: a doubleblind study. J. Clin. Psychopharmacol. 21, 417-424.
56. Gilbert, P. (2006). Evolution and depression: issues and implications. Psychol. Med. 36, 287-297.
57. Gilbert, P., and Allan, S. (1998). The role of defeat and entrapment (arrested flight) in depression: an exploration of an evolutionary view. Psychol. Med. 28, 585-598.
58. Gilbert, P., Gilbert, J., and Irons, C. (2004). Life events, entrapments and arrested anger in depression. J. Affect. Disord. 79, 149-160.
59. Glue, P., Donovan, M. R., Kolluri, S., and Emir, B. (2010). Meta-analysis of relapse prevention antidepressant trials in depressive disorders. Aust. N. Z. J. Psychiatry 44, 697-705.
60. Goldberg, D., Privett, M., Ustun, B., Simon, G., and Linden, M. (1998). The effects of detection and treatment on the outcome of major depression in primary care: a naturalistic study in 15 cities. Br. J. Gen. Pract. 48, 1840-1844.
61. Gorwood, P., Weiller, E., Lemming, O., and Katona, C. (2007). Escitalopram prevents relapse in older patients with major depressive disorder. Am. J. Geriatr. Psychiatry 15, 581-593.
62. Guy, W. (1976). ECDEU Assessment Manual for Psychopharmacology-Revised (DHEW publication no. ADM 76-338). Rockville, MD: US Department of Health, Education, and Welfare.
63. Haddad, P. (1997). Newer antidepressants and the discontinuation syndrome. J. Clin. Psychiatry 58, 17-22.
64. Hagen, E. H. (1999). The functions of postpartum depression. Evol. Hum. Behav. 20, 325-359.
65. Hagen, E. H. (2002). Depression as bargaining -The case postpartum. Evol. Hum. Behav. 23, 323-336.
66. Hagen, E. H. (2003). "The bargaining model of depression," in The Genetic and Cultural Evolution of Cooperation, ed. P. Hammerstein, (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press), 95-123.
67. Hamilton, M. (1960). A rating scale for depression. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry 23, 56-62
68. Harrison, W., Rabkin, J., Stewart, J. W., McGrath, P. J., Tricamo, E., and Quitkin, F. (1986). Phenelzine for chronic depression: a study of continuation treatment. J. Clin. Psychiatry 47, 346-349.
69. Hasday, J. D., Fairchild, K. D., and Shanholtz, C. (2000). The role of fever in the infected host. Microbes Infect. 2, 1891-1904.
70. Heisler, L. K., Chu, H. M., Brennan, T. J., Danao, J. A., Bajwa, P., Parsons, L. H., and Tecott, L. H. (1998). Elevated anxiety and antidepressant-like responses in serotonin 5-HT1A receptor mutant mice. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 95, 15049-15054.
71. Hochochka, P. W., and Somero, G. N. (2002). Biochemical Adaptation: Mechanism and Process in Physiological Evolution. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
72. Hochstrasser, B., Isaksen, P. M., Koponen, H., Lauritzen, L., Mahnert, F. A., Rouillon, F., Wade, A. G., Andersen, M., Pedersen, S. F., Swart, J. C., and Nil, R. (2001). Prophylactic effect of citalopram in unipolar, recurrent depression -Placebo-controlled study of maintenance therapy. Br. J. Psychiatry 178, 304-310.
73. Hollon, S. D., Stewart, M. O., and Strunk, D. (2006). Enduring effects for cognitive behavior therapy in the treatment of depression and anxiety. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 57, 285-315.
74. Horwitz, A. V., and Wakefield, J. C. (2007). The Loss of Sadness: How Psychiatry Transformed Normal Sorrow into Depressive Disorder. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
75. Hyman, S. E., and Nestler, E. J. (1996). Initiation and adaptation: a paradigm for understanding psychotropic drug action. Am. J. Psychiatry 153, 151-162.
76. Jordan, S., Kramer, G. L., Zukas, P. K., Moeller, M., and Petty, F. (1994). In vivo biogenic amine efflux in medial prefrontal cortex with imipramine, fluoxetine, and fluvoxamine. Synapse 18, 294-297.
77. Kalueff, A. V., Wheaton, M., and Murphy, D. L. (2007). What's wrong with my mouse model? Advances and strategies in animal modeling of anxiety and depression. Behav. Brain Res. 179, 1-18.
78. Kamijima, K., Burt, T., Cohen, G., Arano, I., and Hamasaki, T. (2006). A placebo-controlled, randomized withdrawal study of sertraline for major depressive disorder in Japan. Int. Clin. Psychopharmacol. 21, 1-9.
79. Kaymaz, N., van Os, J., Loonen, A. J. M., and Nolen, W. A. (2008). Evidence that patients with single versus recurrent depressive episodes are differentially sensitive to treatment discontinuation: a meta-analysis of placebo-controlled randomized trials. J. Clin. Psychiatry 69, 1423-1436.
80. Keller, M. B., Kocsis, J. H., Thase, M. E., Gelenberg, A. J., Rush, A. J., Koran, L., Schatzberg, A., Russell, J., Hirschfeld, R., Klein, D., McCullough, J. P., Fawcett, J. A., Kornstein, S., LaVange, L., and Harrison, W. (1998). Maintenance phase efficacy of sertraline for chronic depression -A randomized controlled trial. JAMA 280, 1665-1672.
81. Keller, M. C., Neale, M. C., and Kendler, K. S. (2007). Association of different adverse life events with distinct patterns of depressive symptoms. Am. J. Psychiatry 164, 1521-1529.
82. Keller, M. C., and Nesse, R. M. (2004). Subtypes of low mood provide evidence for its adaptive significance. J. Affect. Disord. 78, S77-S78.
83. Keller, M. C., and Nesse, R. M. (2005). Is low mood an adaptation? Evidence for subtypes with symptoms that match precipitants. J. Affect. Disord. 86, 27-35.
84. Keller, M. C., and Nesse, R. M. (2006). The evolutionary significance of depres-
85. sive symptoms: different adverse situations lead to different depressive symptom patterns. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 91, 316-330.
86. Kendler, K. S., Thornton, L. M., and Gardner, C. O. (2000). Stressful life events and previous episodes in the etiology of major depression in women: an evaluation of the "kindling" hypothesis. Am. J. Psychiatry 157, 1243-1251.
87. Kesner, R. P. (2000). Subregional analysis of mnemonic functions of the prefrontal cortex in the rat. Psychobiology 28, 219-228.
88. Kessler, R. C., Berglund, P., Demler, O., Jin, R., and Walters, E. E. (2005). Lifetime prevalence and age-of-onset distributions of DSM-IV disorders in the national comorbidity survey replication. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 62, 593-602.
89. Kessler, R. C., Merikangas, K. R., and Wang, P. S. (2007). Prevalence, comorbidity, and service utilization for mood disorders in the United States at the beginning of the twenty-first century. Annu. Rev. Clin. Psychol. 3, 137-158.
90. Kihara, T., and Ikeda, M. (1995). Effects of duloxetine, a new serotonin and norepinephrine uptake inhibitor, on extracellular monoamine levels in rat frontal cortex. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 272, 177-183.
91. Kirsch, I., Deacon, B. J., Huedo-Medina, T. B., Scoboria, A., Moore, T. J., and Johnson, B. T. (2008). Initial severity and antidepressant benefits: a metaanalysis of data submitted to the Food and Drug Administration. PLoS Med. 5, 260-268. doi: 10.1371/journal. pmed.0050045
92. Kitaichi, Y., Inoue, T., Nakagawa, S., Boku, S., Izumi, T., and Koyama, T. (2010). Combined treatment with MAO-A inhibitor and MAO-B inhibitor increases extracellular noradrenaline levels more than MAO-A inhibitor alone through increases in beta-phenylethylamine. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 637, 77-82.
93. Klerman, G. L., Dimascio, A., Weissman, M., Prusoff, B., and Paykel, E. S. (1974). Treatment of depression by drugs psychotherapy. Am. J. Psychiatry 131, 186-191.
94. Klysner, R., Bent-Hansen, J., Hansen, H. L., Lunde, M., Pleidrup, E., Poulsen, D. L., Andersen, M., and Petersen, H. E. (2002). Efficacy of citalopram in the prevention of recurrent depression in elderly patients: placebo-controlled study of maintenance therapy. Br. J. Psychiatry 181, 29-35.
95. Koch, S., Hemrick-Luecke, S. K., Thompson, L. K., Evans, D. C., Threlkeld, P. G., Nelson, D. L., Perry, K. W., and Bymaster, F. P. (2003). Comparison of effects of dual transporter inhibitors on monoamine transporters and extracellular levels in rats. Neuropharmacology 45, 935-944.
96. Kocsis, J. H., Friedman, R. A., Markowitz, J. C., Leon, A. C., Miller, N. L., Gniwesch, L., and Parides, M. (1996). Maintenance therapy for chronic depression -A controlled clinical trial of desipramine. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 53, 769-774.
97. Kocsis, J. H., Thase, M. E., Trivedi, M. H., Shelton, R. C., Kornstein, S. G., Nemeroff, C. B., Friedman, E. S., Gelenberg, A. J., Dunner, D. L., Hirschfeld, R. M., Rothschild, A. J., Ferguson, J. M., Schatzberg, A. F., Zajecka, J. M., Pedersen, R. D., Yan, B., Ahmed, S., Musgnung, J., Ninan, P. T., and Keller, M. B. (2007). Prevention of recurrent episodes of depression with venlafaxine ER in a 1-year maintenance phase from the PREVENT study. J. Clin. Psychiatry 68, 1014-1023.
98. Krishnan, V., and Nestler, E. J. (2008). The molecular neurobiology of depression. Nature 455, 894-902.
99. Kruijshaar, M. E., Barendregt, J., Vos, T., de Graaf, R., Spijker, J., and Andrews, G. (2005). Lifetime prevalence estimates of major depression: an indirect estimation method and a quantification of recall bias. Eur. J. Epidemiol. 20, 103-111.
100. Leff, M. J., Roatch, J. F., and Bunney, W. E. (1970). Environmental factors preceding onset of severe depressions. Psychiatry 33, 293-311.
101. Lemke, T. L., Williams, D. A., Roche, V. F., and Zito, S. W. (2010). Foye's Principles of Medicinal Chemistry. Baltimore, MD: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
102. Little, R. J. A., and Rubin, D. B. (1989). The analysis of social science data with missing values. Sociol. Methods Res. 18, 292-326.
103. Lochmiller, R. L., and Deerenberg, C. (2000). Trade-offs in evolutionary immunology: just what is the cost of immunity? Oikos 88, 87-98.
104. Lustman, P. J., Clouse, R. E., Nix, B. D., Freedland, K. E., Rubin, E. H., Mcgill, J. B., Williams, M. M., Gelenberg, A. J., Ciechanowski, P. S., and Hirsch, I. B. (2006). Sertraline for prevention of depression recurrence in diabetes mellitus -A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 63, 521-529
105. Marien, M., Floutard, J., and Ladure, P. (2007). Effect of milnacipran on extracellular levels of noradrenaline, dopamine and serotonin (5-HT) in the medial prefrontal cortex of freely moving rats, as measured by intracerebral microdialysis. Fundam. Clin. Pharmacol. 21, 386.
106. Mayorga, A. J., Dalvi, A., Page, M. E., Zimov-Levinson, S., Hen, R., and Lucki, I. Mayorga, A. J., Dalvi, A., Page, M. E., Zimov-Levinson, S., Hen, R., and Lucki, I. (2001). Antidepressant-like behavioral effects in 5-hydroxytryptamine(1A) and 5-hydroxytryptamine(1B) receptor mutant. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 298, 1101-1107.
107. McEwen, B. S. (1998). Protective and damaging effects of stress mediators. N. Engl. J. Med. 338, 171-179.
108. McEwen, B. S. (2007). Physiology and neurobiology of stress and adaptation: central role of the brain. Physiol. Rev. 87, 873-904.
109. McGrath, P. J., Stewart, J. W., Quitkin, F. M., Ying, C., Alpert, J. E., Nierenberg, A. A., Fava, M., Cheng, J., and Petkova, E. (2006). Predictors of relapse in a prospective study of fluoxetine treatment of major depression. Am. J. Psychiatry 163, 1542-1548.
110. Michelson, D., Fava, M., Amsterdam, J., Apter, J., Londborg, P., Tamura, R., and Tepner, R. G. (2000). Interruption of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor treatment: double-blind, placebocontrolled trial. Br. J. Psychiatry 176, 363-368.
111. Mindham, R. H. S., Howland, C., and Shepherd, M. (1973). Evaluation of continuation therapy with tricyclic antidepressants in depressive illness. Psychol. Med. 3, 5-17.
112. Moffitt, T. E., Caspi, A., Taylor, A., Kokaua, J., Milne, B. J., Polanczyk, G., and Poulton, R. (2009). How common are mental disorders? Evidence that lifetime prevalence rates are doubled by prospective versus retrospective ascertainment. Psychol. Med. 40, 899-909.
113. Montgomery, S. A., and Asberg, M. (1979). A new depression scale designed to be sensitive to change. Br. J. Psychiatry 134, 382-389.
114. Montgomery, S. A., Dufour, H., Brion, S., Gailledreau, J., Laqueille, X., Ferrey, G. Moron, P., Parant-Lucena, N., Singer, L., Danion, J. M., Beuzen, J. M., and Pierredoin, M. A. (1988). The prophylactic efficacy of fluoxetine in unipolar depression. Br. J. Psychiatry 153 (Suppl. 3), 69-76.
115. Montgomery, S. A., and Dunbar, G. (1993). Paroxetine is better than placebo in relapse prevention and the prophylaxis of recurrent depression. Int. Clin. Psychopharmacol. 8, 189-195.
116. Montgomery, S. A., Entsuah, R., Hackett, D., Kunz, N. R., and Rudolph, R. L. (2004). Venlafaxine versus placebo in the preventive treatment of recurrent major depression. J. Clin. Psychiatry 65, 328-336.
117. Montgomery, S. A., Rasmussen, J. G. C., Lyby, K., Connor, P., and Tanghoj, P. (1992). Dose-response relationship of citalopram 20 mg, citalopram 40 mg and placebo in the treatment of moderate and severe depression. Int. Clin. Psychopharmacol. 6, 65-70.
118. Montgomery, S. A., Rasmussen, J. G. C., and Tanghoj, P. (1993). A 24 week study of 20 mg citalopram, 40 mg citalopram, and placebo in the prevention of relapse of major depression. Int. Clin. Psychopharmacol. 8, 181-188.
119. Montgomery, S. A., Reimitz, P. E., and Zivkov, M. (1998). Mirtazapine versus amitriptyline in the long-term treatment of depression: a double-blind placebo-controlled study. Int. Clin. Psychopharmacol. 13, 63-73.
120. Nesse, R. M. (2000). Is depression an adaptation? Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 57, 14-20.
121. Nesse, R. M. (2004). Natural selection and the elusiveness of happiness. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. BBiol. Sci. 359, 1333-1347
122. Nesse, R. M., and Ellsworth, P. C. (2009). Evolution, emotions, and emotional disorders. Am. Psychologist 64, 129-139.
123. Nestler, E. J., and Aghajanian, G. K. (1997). Molecular and cellular basis of addiction. Science 278, 58-63.
124. Nestler, E. J., Gould, E., Manji, H., Bucan, M., Duman, R. S., Gershenfeld, H. K., Hen, R., Koester, S., Lederhendler, I., Meaney, M., Robbins, T., Winsky, L., and Zalcman, S. (2002). Preclinical models: status of basic research in depression. Biol. Psychiatry 52, 503-528.
125. Parent, M. B., Habib, M. K., and Baker, G. B. (2000). Time-dependent changes in brain monoamine oxidase activity and in brain levels of monoamines and amino acids following acute administration of the antidepressant/antipanic drug phenelzine. Biochem. Pharmacol. 59, 1253-1263.
126. Perahia, D. G., Gilaberte, I., Wang, F. J., Wiltse, C. G., Huckins, S. A., Clemens, J. W., Montgomery, S. A., Montejo, A. L., and Detke, M. J. (2006). Duloxetine in the prevention of relapse of major depressive disorder -Double-blind placebo-controlled study. Br. J. Psychiatry 188, 346-353.
127. Perahia, D. G. S., Maina, G., Thase, M. E., Spann, M. E., Wang, F. J., Walker, D. J., and Detke, M. J. (2009). Duloxetine in the prevention of depressive recurrences: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. J. Clin. Psychiatry 70, 706-716.
128. Petrakis, I. L., Leslie, D., and Rosenheck, R. (2003). The use of antidepressants in alcohol-dependent veterans. J. Clin. Psychiatry 64, 865-870.
129. Posternak, M. A., Solomon, D. A., Leon, A. C., Mueller, T. I., Shea, M. T., Endicott, J., and Keller, M. B. (2006). The naturalistic course of unipolar major depression in the absence of somatic therapy. J. Nervous Ment. Dis. 194, 324-329.
130. Price, J. (2009). Darwinian dynamics of depression. Aust. N. Z. J. Psychiatry 43, 1029-1037.
131. Price, J., Sloman, L., Gardner, R., Gilbert, P., and Rohde, P. (1994). The social competition hypothesis of depression. Br. J. Psychiatry 164, 309-315.
132. Raghunathan, T. E., Solenberger, P. W., and Van Hoewyk, J. (2002). IVEware: Imputation and Variance Estimation Software User Guide [Computer software]. Ann Arbor, MI: The Regents of the University of Michigan.
133. Reimherr, F. W., Amsterdam, J. D., Quitkin, F. M., Rosenbaum, J. F., Fava, M., Zajecka, J., Beasley, C. M. Jr., Michelson, D., Roback, P., and Sundell, K. (1998). Optimal length of continuation therapy in depression: a prospective assessment during long-term fluoxetine treatment. Am. J. Psychiatry 155, 1247-1253.
134. Renard, C. E., Dailly, E., Nic Dhonnchadha, B. A., Hascoet, M., and Bourin, M. (2004). Is dopamine a limiting factor of the antidepressant-like effect in the mouse forced swimming test? Prog. Neuropsychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry 28, 1255-1259.
135. Reynolds, C. F., Frank, E., Perel, J. M., Imber, S. D., Cornes, C., Miller, M. D., Mazumdar, S., Houck, P. R., Dew, M. A., Stack. J. A., Pollock, B. G., and Kupfer, D. J. (1999). Nortriptyline and interpersonal psychotherapy as maintenance therapies for recurrent major depression -A randomized controlled trial in patients older than 59 years. JAMA 281, 39-45
136. Rickels, K., Montgomery, S. A., Tourian, K. A., Guelfi, J. D., Pitrosky, B., Padmanabhan, S. K., Germain, J. M., Leurent, C., and Brisard, C. (2010). Desvenlafaxine for the prevention of relapse in major depressive disorder: results of a randomized trial. J. Clin. Psychopharmacol. 30, 18-24.
137. Robert, P., and Montgomery, S. A. (1995). Citalopram in doses of 20-60 mg Is effective in depression relapse prevention: a placebo-controlled 6-month study. Int. Clin. Psychopharmacol. 10, 29-35.
138. Robinson, D. S., Lerfald, S. C., Bennett, B., Laux, D., Devereaux, E., Kayser, A., Corcella, J., and Albright, D. (1991). Continuation and maintenance treatment of major depression with the monoamine oxidase inhibitor Phenelzine: a double-blind placebo controlled discontinuation study. Psychopharmacol. Bull. 27, 31-39.
139. Romanovsky, A. A. (2007). Thermoregulation: some concepts have changed. Functional architecture of the thermoregulatory system. Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol. 292, R37-R46.
140. Romanovsky, A. A., Almeida, M. C., Aronoff, D. M., Ivanov, A. I., Konsman, J. P., Steiner, A. A., and Turek, V. F. (2005). Fever and hypothermia in systemic inflammation: recent discoveries and revisions. Front. Biosci. 10, 2193-2216.
141. Rouillon, F., Berdeaux, G., Bisserbe, J. C., Warner, B., Mesbah, M., Smadja, C., and Chwalow, J. (2000). Prevention of recurrent depressive episodes with milnacipran: consequences on quality of life. J. Affect. Disord. 58, 171-180.
142. Rush, A. J., Trivedi, M. H., Wisniewski, S. R., Nierenberg, A. A., Stewart, J. W., Warden, D., Niederehe, G., Thase, M. E., Lavori, P. W., Lebowitz, B. D., McGrath, P. J., Rosenbaum, J. F., Sackeim, H. A., Kupfer, D. J., Luther, J., and Fava, M. (2006). Acute and longer-term outcomes in depressed outpatients requiring one or several treatment steps: a STAR*D report. Am. J. Psychiatry 163, 1905-1917.
143. Sadock, B. J., and Sadock, V. A. (2005). Kaplan & Sadock's Comprehensive Textbook of Psychiatry, 8th Edn. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
144. Sapolsky, R. M. (1996). Why stress is bad for your brain. Science 273, 749-750.
145. Sapolsky, R. M. (2000). The possibility of neurotoxicity in the hippocampus in major depression: a primer on neuron death. Biol. Psychiatry 48, 755-765.
146. Sapolsky, R. M. (2001). Depression, antidepressants, and the shrinking hippocampus. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 98, 12320-12322.
147. Sapolsky, R. M. (2004). Why Zebras Don't Get Ulcers, 3rd Edn. New York, NY: Henry Holt and Company.
148. Savitz, J. B., and Drevets, W. C. (2009). Imaging phenotypes of major depressive disorder: genetic correlates. Neuroscience 164, 300-330.
149. Schmidt, M. E., Fava, M., Robinson, J. M., and Judge, R. (2000). The efficacy and safety of a new enteric-coated formulation of fluoxetine given once weekly during the continuation treatment of major depressive disorder. J. Clin. Psychiatry 61, 851-857.
150. Schulman, C. I., Namias, N., Doherty, J., Manning, R. J., Li, P., Elhaddad, A., Lasko, D., Amortegui, J., Dy, C. J., Dlugasch, L., Baracco, G., and Cohn, S. M. (2005). The effect of antipyretic therapy upon outcomes in critically ill patients: a randomized, prospective study. Surg. Infect. (Larchmt) 6, 369-375.
151. Seo, D. O., Shin, C. Y., Lee, C. J., Dailey, J. W., Reith, M. E. A., Jobe, P. C., and Ko, K. H. (1999). Effect of alterations in extracellular norepinephrine on adrenoceptors: a microdialysis study in freely moving rats. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 365, 39-46.
152. Simon, J. S., Aguiar, L. M., Kunz, N. R., and Lei, D. (2004). Extended-release venlafaxine in relapse prevention for patients with major depressive disorder. J. Psychiatr. Res. 38, 249-257.
153. Spitzer, R. L. (2007). Foreword. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
154. Spitzer, R. L., and Wakefield, J. C. (1999). DSM-IV diagnostic criterion for clinical significance: does it help solve the false positives problem? Am. J. Psychiatry 156, 1856-1864.
155. Stahl, S. (2008). Stahl's Essential Psychopharmacology: Neuroscientific Basis and Practical Applications, 3rd Edn. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
156. Stein, M. K., Rickels, K., and Weise, C. C. (1980). Maintenance therapy with amitriptyline: controlled trial. Am. J. Psychiatry 137, 370-371.
157. Stewart, J. W., Tricamo, E., McGrath, P. J., and Quitkin, F. M. (1997). Prophylactic efficacy of phenelzine and imipramine in chronic atypical depression: likelihood of recurrence on discontinuation after 6 months' remission. Am. J. Psychiatry 154, 31-36.
158. Takahashi, H., Takada, Y., Nagai, N., Urano, T., and Takada, A. (2000). Serotonergic neurons projecting to hippocampus activate locomotion. Brain Res. 869, 194-202.
159. Tanda, G., Carboni, E., Frau, R., and Dichiara, G. (1994). Increase of extracellular dopamine in the prefrontal cortex: a trait of drugs with antidepressant potential. Psychopharmacology (Berl.) 115, 285-288.
160. Terra, J. L., and Montgomery, S. A. (1998). Fluvoxamine prevents recurrence of depression: results of a long-term, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Int. Clin. Psychopharmacol. 13, 55-62.
161. Tomlinson, K. L., Tate, S. R., Anderson, K. G., McCarthy, D. M., and Brown, S. A. (2006). An examination of selfmedication and rebound effects: psychiatric symptomatology before and after alcohol or drug relapse. Addict. Behav. 31, 461-474.
162. Turner, E. H., Matthews, A. M., Linardatos, E., Tell, R. A., and Rosenthal, R. (2008). Selective publication of antidepressant trials and its influence on apparent efficacy. N. Engl. J. Med. 358, 252-260.
163. Uylings, H. B. M., Groenewegen, H. J., and Kolb, B. (2003). Do rats have a prefrontal cortex? Behav. Brain Res. 146, 3-17.
164. Uylings, H. B. M., and Vaneden, C. G. (1990). Qualitative and quantitative comparison of the prefrontal cortex in rat and in primates, including humans. Prog. Brain Res. 85, 31-62.
165. Valenstein, E. S. (1998). Blaming the Brain: The Truth About Drugs and Mental Health. New York, NY: The Free Press.
166. Valentini, V., Cacciapaglia, F., Frau, R., and Di Chiara, G. (2005). Selective serotonin reuptake blockade increases extracellular dopamine in noradrenaline-rich isocortical but not prefrontal areas: dependence on serotonin-1A receptors and independence from noradrenergic innervation. J. Neurochem. 93, 371-382.
167. Valentini, V., Frau, R., and Di Chiara, G. (2004). Noradrenaline transporter blockers raise extracellular dopamine in medial prefrontal but not parietal and occipital cortex: differences with mianserin and clozapine. J. Neurochem. 88, 917-927.
168. van Praag, H., and de Haan, S. (1980). Depression vulnerability and 5-hydroxytryptophan prophylaxis. Psychiatry Res 3, 75-83.
169. Viguera, A. C., Baldessarini, R. J., and Friedberg, J. (1998). Discontinuing antidepressant treatment in major depression. Harv. Rev. Psychiatry 5, 293-306.
170. Wakefield, J. C. (1992). The concept of mental disorder: on the boundary between biological facts and social values. Am. Psychologist 47, 373-388.
171. Wakefield, J. C., Schmitz, M. F., and Baer, J. C. (2010). Does the DSM-IV clinical significance criterion for major depression reduce false positives? Evidence from the National Comorbidity Survey replication. Am. J. Psychiatry 167, 298-304.
172. Wakefield, J. C., Schmitz, M. F., First, M. B., and Horwitz, A. V. (2007). Extending the bereavement exclusion for major depression to other losses -Evidence from the National Comorbidity Survey. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 64, 433-440.
173. Watson, P. J., and Andrews, P. W. (2002). Toward a revised evolutionary adaptationist analysis of depression: the social navigation hypothesis. J. Affect. Disord. 72, 1-14.
174. Weikop, P., Kehr, J., and Scheel-Kruger, J. (2007). Reciprocal effects of combined administration of serotonin, noradrenaline and dopamine reuptake inhibitors on serotonin and dopamine levels in the rat prefrontal cortex: the role of 5-HT1A receptors. J. Psychopharmacol. 21, 795-804.
175. Wells, J. E., and Horwood, L. J. (2004). How accurate is recall of key symptoms of depression? A comparison of recall and longitudinal reports. Psychol. Med. 34, 1001-1011.
176. Wilson, K. C. M., Mottram, P. G., Ashworth, L., and Abou-Saleh, M. T. (2003). Older community residents with depression: long-term treatment with sertraline -Randomised, doubleblind, placebo-controlled study. Br. J. Psychiatry 182, 492-497.
177. Wolowczuk, I., Verwaerde, C., Viltart, O., Delanoye, A., Delacre, M., Pot, B., and Grangette, C. (2008). Feeding our immune system: impact on metabolism. Clin. Dev. Immunol. 1-19.
178. Woods, A. H. (2009). "Evolution of homeostatic physiological systems," in Phenotypic Plasticity of Insects, eds D. Whitman and T. N. Ananthakrishnan (Plymouth: Science Publishers), 655-674.
179. Wrosch, C., and Miller, G. E. (2009). Depressive symptoms can be useful: self-regulatory and emotional benefits of dysphoric mood in adolescence. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 96, 1181-1190
180. Young, A. M., and Goudie, A. J. (1995). "Adaptive processes regulating tolerance to behavioral effects of drugs," in Psychopharmacology: 4th Generation of Progress, eds F. E. Bloom and D. J. Kupfer (New York, NY: Raven Press), 733-742.
181. Zimmerman, M., Posternak, M. A., and Ruggero, C. J. (2007). Impact of study design on the results of continuation studies of antidepressants. J. Clin. Psychopharmacol. 27, 177-181.