Electrifying Africa: An environmental history with policy implications

Geografiska Annaler, Series B: Human Geography

Volumn 93, Issue 3, 2011, Pages 193-221

  Showers, Kate B ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF SUSSEX   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Africa; Dams; Electricity; Neo Europes; Renewable energy; Water cycle

Indexed keywords

DAM; ELECTRICITY GENERATION; ENERGY RESOURCE; ENVIRONMENTAL HISTORY; ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY; EUROPEAN UNION; NEOLIBERALISM; RENEWABLE RESOURCE; RURAL ELECTRIFICATION; SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT;

NORTH AFRICA;

EID: 82955221766     PISSN: 04353684     EISSN: 14680467     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-0467.2011.00373.x     Document Type: Article

References (160)

1. ACTING CHIEF SECRETARY (1955): 'Acting Chief Secretary, Central African Council, Salisbury to Under Secretary of State for Colonies, Colonial Office, 9th August 1959', REF 825/228D/50, in African Development: General. J 1421/22. Public Record Office, Kew. PRO FO 371/80182.
2. ADAMS, W. M. (1992): Wasting the Rain: Rivers, People and Planning in Africa. University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, MN.
3. AFREC (undated): 'History and objective', African Energy Commission [online document]. URL [accessed 10 June 2010].
4. ANDERSON, D., PATON, T. A. L. and BLACKBURN, C. (1960): 'Zambezi hydro-electric development at Kariba, First Stage', Paper no. 6479, in Commonwealth Relations Office: Economic Relations Divisions I and II and successors: Registered Files. Federation of Rhodesia and Nyassaland. Kariba Dam and other hydro-electric projects. Public Record Office, Kew. PRO DO 189/36.
5. ANONYMOUS (1968[]): 'Notes of a meeting held at H.M. treasury on Thursday 16th May to consider a possible I.B.R.D. Proposal for financing Kariba North Power Station', Annex, Kariba North Bank Power Station. Public Record Office, Kew. PRO T 317/1154.
6. ANONYMOUS (2006): 'Ghana balances hydro and thermal', News, International Water Power and Dam Construction 14 March 2006 [online article]. URL [accessed 2 July 2010].
7. ASHE, B. (2002): 'Eskom's reach in Africa', Eskom's African Privatisation Footprint 2000-2002, CorpWatch Holding Corporations Accountable 16 August [online document]. URL [accessed 21 April 2009].
8. AZITOENERGIE (2004): 'Azito power plant', Azitoenergie [online document]. URL [accessed 27 July 2010].
9. BAKER, P. J. N. (1950): 'From P. J. Noel Baker, Commonwealth Relations Officer to Governor Major General Sir John Kennedy, 11 February 1950', Southern Rhodesia. No 66, in African Department General J1421/6. Commonwealth Relations Office, Communicated, No. R. 3048/8. Public Record Office, Kew. PRO FO 371/80182.
10. BEINART, W. and McGREGOR, J., (eds) (2003): Social History and African Environments. James Currey, Oxford.
11. BELFIELD, H. C. (1914a): 'The Governor to the Secretary of State, 15 August 1914 (No. 763)', No. 238, East Africa Protectorate. Further Correspondence [1914] relating to concessions in Nyassaland, Uganda and the East African Protectorate, Colonial Office 1915. Public Record Office, Kew. PRO 879/115/1.
12. BELFIELD, H. C. (1914b): 'Governor to the Secretary of State, received 9th January 1914', Telegram. No 7, Your dispatch 5th December, Confidential. No. 10, East Africa Protectorate, African No. 1016, Confidential. Future Correspondence (1914) relating to Concessions in Nyasaland, Uganda, and the East African Protectorate, in Continuation of African 990; continued by African No. 1032, Colonial Office August 1915. Public Record Office, Kew. PRO CO 879/115/1.
13. BENDER, G. J. (1978): Angola under the Portuguese: The Myth and the Reality. University of California Press, Berkeley, CA.
14. BENNETT, J. (2010): Vibrant Matter: A Political Ecology of Things. Duke University Press, Durham, NC.
15. BIRCHARD, R. E. (1940): 'Copper in the Katanga Region of the Belgian Congo', Economic Geography 16 (4): 429-436.
16. BOLTON, P. (1983): The Regulation of the Zambezi in Mozambique: A Study of the Origin and Impact of the Caborra Bassa Project. Unpublished PhD dissertation, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh.
17. BONELL, M. and BRUIJNZEEL, L. A., (eds) (2004): Forests, Water and People in the Humid Tropics: Past, Present and Future Hydrological Research for Integrated Land and Water Management. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
18. BORGES COELHO, J. P. C. (1993): Protected Villages and Communal Villages in the Mozambican Province of Tete (1968-1982): A History of State Resettlement Policies, Development and War. Unpublished DPhil dissertation, Department of Social and Economic Studies, University of Bradford, Bradford.
19. BOSCH, J. M. and HEWLETT, J. D. (1982): 'A review of catchment experiments to determine the effects of vegetation changes on water yield and evapotranspiration', Journal of Hydrology 55 (1-4): 3-23.
20. BOT, A. J., NACHTERGAELE, F. O. and YOUNG, A. (2000): Land resources potential and constraints at regional and country levels. World Soil Resources Report 90, Land and Water Development Division, Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome.
21. BOYD, J. B., Jr (1985): 'A subsystemic analysis of the Southern African Development Coordination Conference', African Studies Review 28 (4): 46-61.
22. BRYANT, R. L. (1997): 'Beyond the impasse: the power of political ecology in Third World environmental research', Area 29 (1): 5-19.
23. BUREAU of FOREIGN COMMERCE (1956): Investment in Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland: Basic Information for United States Businessmen, 1956. United States Department of Commerce. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC. Rhodes House, Oxford University. 740.14 s. 16.
24. BURSTALL & MONKHOUSE (1914): 'From Burstall & Monkhouse, London to The Secretary, The Nairobi Electric Power & Lighting Company, Limited, London, 24th August 1914', Enclosure 3 in No. 230, Thika Power Scheme, War and Colonial Department and Colonial Office, Africa, Confidential Print, Concessions in Nyasaland, Uganda and East African Protectorate: Further Correspondence. Public Record Office, Kew. PRO CO 879/115.
25. BYATT, H. A. (1920): 'From H. A. Byatt, Administrator, Dar-Es-Salaam to Principal Secretary of State for the Colonies, London, 9th June 1920', Tanganyika Territory No. 224. Public Record Office, Kew. PRO T 161/1049.
26. BYRNE, J., GLOVER, L., LEE, H., WANG, Y.-D. and YU, J.-M. (2004): 'Electricity reform at a crossroads: problems in South Korea's power liberalization strategy', Pacific Affairs 77 (3): 493-516.
27. CARPENTER, W. M. (1929): 'Electrical power: national and regional schemes', Encyclopaedia Britannica, vol. 8. 14th edn. Encyclopedia Britannica, London, pp. 144-150.
28. CASTELINHO, I. (1972): 'Cunene: the biggest artificial lake on Portuguese territory', Portugal: An Information Review 25: 22-25.
29. CECELSKI, E., OUNALLI, A., AISSA, M. and DUNKERLEY J. (2005): Rural electrification in Tunisia: national commitment, efficient implementation and sound finances. ESMAP Formal Report 307/05, Joint UNDP/World Bank Energy Sector Management Assistance Program, World Bank, Washington, DC, August.
30. CHIEF ENGINEER and MANAGER (1923): 'Report on the First Year's Working of New Power Station, Dar-Es-Salaam', Electricity Department, Enclosure with letter from H. A. Byatt, Governor to Lord Duke, Principal Secretary of State for Colonies, 4 May 1923, Tanganyika Territory No. 299. Public Record Office, Kew. PRO T 161/1049.
31. CIA (2010): 'The world factbook: Cote d'Ivoire', Central Intelligence Agency [online document]. URL: [accessed 27 July 2010].
32. CLEMENTS, F. (1960): Kariba: The Struggle with the River God. Putnam, New York.
33. COLONIAL PRIMARY PRODUCTS COMMITTEE (1947): 'Extract from Interim Report of the C.P.P.C. Original on 19907/69/47', in Industrial Development. East Africa Fertiliser Factory. Public Record Office, Kew. PRO CO 852/836/4.
34. COLSON, E. (1971): The Social Consequences of Resettlement: The Impact of the Kariba Resettlement upon the Gwembe Tonga. Manchester University Press, Manchester.
35. COTTON, J. R. (1957): 'From J. R. Cotton, Counsellor (Commercial), British Embassy, Brussels to J. B. Smith, Board of Trade, London 6 November 1957', Confidential, P. No. 153 (54316/57), Foreign Office: Political Departments: General Correspondence from 1906 to 1966, Hydro-electric Power Project Congo River. Public Record Office, Kew. FO 371/125403.
36. COX, R. C. (1955): 'From R. C. Cox, Commonwealth Relations Office to A. H. Reed, Salisbury, 7 September, 1955', EC2338/10/3, in African Department: Africa General, J1122/15. Public Record Office, Kew. PRO 371/113476.
37. CROSBY, A. W. (1986): Ecological Imperialism: The Biological Expansion of Europe, 900-1900. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
38. CROSBY, A. W. (2006): Children of the Sun: A History of Humanity's Unappeasable Appetite for Energy. Norton, New York.
39. DAVIES, B. R. and DAY, J. (1998): Vanishing Waters. University of Cape Town Press, Cape Town.
40. DAVIES, B. R. and WALKER, K. F., (eds) (1986): The Ecology of River Systems. W. Junk, Dordrecht.
41. DEAT (2005): 'South Africa. Country report, 14th session of the United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development, September 2005', Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism, South Africa [online document]. URL [accessed 21 April 2009].
42. DEPARTMENT of INFORMATION (1956): Industries of the Federation: A Study in Progress. Department of Information, Southern Rhodesia, The Industrial Press, Salisbury. Rhodes House, Oxford University. RHO 740.14s.18(1).
43. DESERTEC (2009): 'Questions and answers on the DESERTEC concept', DESERTEC Foundation 9 July [online document]. URL [accessed 28 July 2010].
44. DEW, E. (1922): 'Minutes of Evidence taken before the Select Committee on Electricity Bill. 9th June 1922', Union of South Africa, Report of the Select Committee on the Electricity Bill, June 1922. Government Printer, Cape Town. Rhodes House, Oxford University. Africa (South):agriculture. 610.44 r5/1922(2).
45. DIAMOND, J. M. (2005): Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed. Penguin, New York.
46. EC (2011): Roadmap for moving to a competitive low carbon economy in 2050. COM (2011)112 final, Commission of the European Communities, Brussels, 8 March.
47. EDGERTON, D. (2007): The Shock of the Old: Technology and Global History since 1900. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
48. EGBORGE, A. B. M. (1998): 'Some solutions to water problems in the Niger Delta', First Urhobo Economic Summit on Oil, Gas and Sustainable Development, 27-28 November, Urhobo Historical Society [online document]. URL [accessed 9 July 2010].
49. ELECTRICITY POWER SUPPLY (1920): 'Report on Existing Plant and Future Requirements', Tanganyika Territory, Enclosure in Despatch No. 224 of 9th June, Electricity Power Supply, Tanganyika Territory, Dar-Es-Salaam, 1st June 1920, page 4. Public Record Office, Kew. PRO T 161/1049.
50. ELIOT, C. (1903): 'East African Protectorate Ordinance N. 18 of 1903. The Use and Supply of Electricity. Mombasa, August 25, 1903'. Public Record Office, Kew. PRO FO 881/8032.
51. ELMISSIRY, M. (2000): 'The Southern African Power Pool and its impact on billing and metering', Metering Africa, Proceedings of Africa 2000 Conference and Exhibition, Nairobi, Kenya [online document]. URL [accessed 15 October 2006].
52. ESCOM (1949[]): Twenty-five Years: A Record of the Origin, Progress and Achievements of the Electricity Supply Commission, Union of South Africa, 1923-1948. Government Printer, Pretoria. Rhodes House, Oxford University. 610.441s 21.
53. ESKOM (2009): 'Electricity in South Africa: the early years', Eskom Heritage [online document]. URL [accessed 9 July 2010].
54. ESKOM HOLDINGS (2002): 'PAIA manual', Eskom Holdings Ltd., Johannesburg [online document]. URL [accessed 6 June 2011].
55. EU (2007): 'Ministerial declaration of the Euro-Mediterranean Energy Partnership: adopted together with its annexes by Ministers at the conference in Limassol, Cyprus on 17 December 2007'. 16709/07 (Presse 300), Council of the European Union, Brussels.
56. EURO-MEDITERRANEAN PARTNERSHIP (2003): 'Declaration of intent on the Maghreb electricity market and its integration into the European Union internal electricity market. Athens 21 May 2003' [online document]. URL [accessed 27 July 2010].
57. FAO (2006): 'Aquastat - geo-referenced database on African dams. The Dams Database based on ICOLD 1985 data, national surveys, and internet search', Food and Agriculture Organization 5 April [online resource]. URL [accessed 10 April 2009].
58. FEDERAL POWER BOARD (1959): Annual Report and Accounts for the Year ended 30th June, 1959. Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland, Government Printer, Salisbury. Rhodes House, Oxford University. 740.14s 37/1958/59.
59. FERGUSON, J. (1999): Expectations of Modernity: Myths and Meanings of Urban Life on the Zambian Copperbelt. University of California Press, Berkeley, CA.
60. GARDENER, C. (1922): 'Minutes of Evidence. Select Committee on Electricity Bill, 6th June 1922', Union of South Africa, Union of South Africa, Report on the Select Committee on the Electricity Bill. June 1922. Cape Times Ltd, Cape Town. Rhodes House, Oxford University. Africa (South):agriculture. 610.44 55/1922(2).
61. GENERAL MANAGER SOUTH AFRICAN RAILWAYS (1922): 'Memorandum on the Bill by the General Manager of the South African Railways and Harbours', Report of the Select Committee on Electricity Bill, Appendix D, Union of South Africa, June 1922. Government Printer, Cape Town. Rhodes House, Oxford University. Africa (South):agriculture. 610.44r 5/1922(2).
62. GENI (undated): 'National energy grid Algeria: grid summary', Global Energy Network Institute [online document]. URL [accessed 6 July 2010].
63. GF SE (2006): 'SADC energy programmes and projects, Gaberone, Botswana, October 2006'. SADC GF SE-6 Briefing Paper, Global Forum on Sustainable Energy, Vienna.
64. GIAMBELLUCA, T. W. (2002): 'The hydrology of altered tropical forests', Hydrological Processes 16 (8): 1665-1669.
65. GLEICK, P. H. (1993): Water in Crisis: A Guide to the World's Fresh Water Resources. Oxford University Press, New York.
66. GLEICK, P. H. (1994): 'Water and energy', Annual Review of Energy and the Environment 19: 267-299.
67. GLOBAL TRANSMISSION (2009): 'MedRing: building an interconnected system across three continents', Global Transmission Report March [online document]. URL [accessed 8 August 2010].
68. GOLDSTEIN, R. and SMITH, W. (2002): Water and sustainability (Volume 3): US water consumption for power production - the next half century. Topical Report 1006786, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA, March.
69. GRANADINO, R. and MANSOURI, F. (2007): 'A bridge between two continents', Transmission and Distribution World May 2007 [online document]. URL [accessed 8 August 2010].
70. HAANYIKA, C. M. (2008): 'Rural electrification in Zambia: a policy institutional analysis', Energy Policy 36 (3): 1044-1058.
71. HALL, R. (1965): Zambia. Pall Mall, London.
72. HANSON, S. (2009): 'Backgrounder: the African Union', Council on Foreign Relations, 1 September [online document]. URL [accessed 22 June 2010].
73. HEIMBIGNER, B. E. (1983): 'Zero liquid discharge control in United States coal fired steam electric stations', Water Science and Technology 15 (10): 101-118.
74. HIGLETT, G. A. (1914): 'From G.A. Higlett, the Nairobi Electric Power & Lighting Co, Ltd. To Colonial Office, 26th August, 1914', 32465. No. 230, East Africa Protectorate, p. 258. Public Record Office, Kew. PRO CO 879/115.
75. HOAG, H. J. and ÖHMAN, M.-B. (2008): 'Turning water into power. debates over the development of Tanzania's Rufiji River basin, 1945-1985', Technology and Culture 49 (3): 624-651.
76. HODGES, M. G. (2001): Guidelines for environmental impact assessment for thermal power plants in the Southern African Power Poll (SAPP) region. Report for USAID, WSP Environmental, Johannesburg, December.
77. HODGKINSON, E. (1999): 'Côte d'Ivoire: economy', in Africa South of the Sahara 2000. 29th edn. Europa Publications, London, pp. 402-405.
78. HOWARTH, D. (1961): The Shadow of the Dam. Macmillan, New York.
79. IAEA (1983): Environmental effects of cooling systems: report of a coordinated research programme on physical and biological effects on the environment of cooling systems and thermal discharges from nuclear power stations. Technical Reports Series 202, International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna.
80. IMF (2002): 'Zambia poverty reduction strategy paper', International Monetary Fund, Washington, DC [online document]. URL [accessed 27 May 2011].
81. ISAACMAN, A. and SNEDDON, C. (2000): 'Toward a social and environmental history of the building of Cahora Bassa Dam', Journal of Southern African Studies 26 (4): 597-632.
82. JACKSON, F. J. (1914): 'The Governor to the Secretary of State, 7 January 1914. No. 43', in Further Correspondence [1914] relating to Concessions in Nyasaland, Uganda and the East African Protectorate, Colonial Office 1915, p. 50. Public Record Office, Kew. PRO CO 879/115/1.
83. JIMOH, O. D. (2011): Personal communication from Dr O. D. Jimoh, Department of Civil Engineering, Federal University of Technology, Minna, Nigeria, 9 June.
84. KAREKEZI, S. (2002): 'Renewables in Africa - meeting the energy needs of the poor', Energy Policy 30 (11-12): 1059-1069.
85. KITSON, A. E. (1925): Outline of mineral and water-power resources of the Gold Coast, British West Africa. Gold Coast Geological Survey Bulletin No. 1. C. A. Terry, London.
86. KNIGHT, M. M. (1953): 'Economic space for Europeans in French North Africa', Economic Development and Cultural Change 1 (5): 360-375.
87. KURUK, P. (1989): 'Performance of electric utilities in developing countries: the Ghanaian and Nigerian experience', Loyola of Los Angeles International and Comparative Law Journal 11: 515-542.
88. L'AMÉNAGEMENT HYDRO-ÉLECTRIQUE du SITE D'INGA. (1957): La Libre Belgique 14 April: 11. Public Record Office, Kew. PRO FO 371/125403.
89. LAMBERT, C. E. (1950): 'From C. E. Lambert to J. P. Gibson, Commonwealth Relations Office, 16th January 1950', R 3040/8. 43001/21/3, in Egyptian Department: General. J.1421/2. Public Record Office, Kew. PRO FO 371/80182.
90. LARKINS, L. B. S. (1927): 'Memorandum on the Aswan Scheme. Part II - 1904-1927', included in Memorandum on the Aswan Scheme, 1938. Public Record Office, Kew. PRO FO 371/21993.
91. LATOUR, B. (1993): We Have Never Been Modern. Harvester Wheatsheaf, New York.
92. LAU, B. and STERN, C. (1990): Namibian Water Resources and their Management: A Preliminary History. Archeia 15, Natinonal Archives of Namibia, Windhoek.
93. LAWS, H. W. (1910): 'Report on the N'Gell River tin deposits, Northern Nigeria' [3 September 1910], in CALVERT, A. F. (1910): Nigeria and its Tin Fields. Edward Stanford, London, pp. 110-119.
94. LEECH, J. (1968): 'Last chance for Kariba North Bank', Zambia Mail 31 May. Public Record Office, Kew. PRO T31/1154.
95. LEWIS, L. A. and BERRY, L. (1988): African Environments and Resources. Unwin Hyman, Boston, MA.
96. LEWIS, P. (1931): The Romance of Water Power. Sampson Low, Marston, London.
97. LYNCH, M. P. J. (1964): 'From M. P. J. Lynch to Mr. Sharp. Confidential. Proposed British Guarantee for I.B.R.D. loan to Central African Power Corporation. 6 July 1964'. Public Record Office, Kew. PRO T 317/699.
98. MADAMOMBE, I. (2005): 'Energy key to Africa's prosperity: challenges in West Africa's quest for electricity', African Renewal 18 (4): 6-8.
99. MAGEE, D. L. (2006): New Energy Geographies: Powershed Politics and Hydropower Decision Making in Yunnan, China. Unpublished PhD thesis, University of Washington, Seattle, WA.
100. MANAFA, M. N. A. (1979): Electricity Development in Nigeria, 1896-1972. Raheem Publishers, Yaba, Nigeria.
101. MARTINEZ-ALIER, J. (1999): 'From political economy to political ecology', in MAYUMI, K. and GOWDY, J. M., (eds): Bioeconomics and Sustainability: Essays in Honor of Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen. Edward Elgar, Cheltenham, pp. 25-50.
102. McCANN, J. C. (1999): Green Land, Brown Land, Black Land: An Environmental History of Africa, 1800-1900. Heinemann, Portsmouth, NH.
103. McCULLY, P. (1996): Silenced Rivers: The Ecology and Politics of Large Dams. Zed, London.
104. McNEILL, J. R. (2000): Something New under the Sun: An Environmental History of the Twentieth-Century World. Norton, New York.
105. MEDELEC (2007): MEDELEC [web site]. URL [accessed 17 April 2011].
106. MEISSNER, R. (2005): 'Interest groups as local stakeholders involved in the water politics of a transboundary river: the case of the proposed Eupa Dam across the Kunene', in WIRKUS, L., (ed.): Water, Development and Cooperation - Comparative Perspective: Euphrates-Tigris and Southern Africa. Paper 46, Bonn International Center for Conversion, Bonn, pp. 101-121.
107. MELLAND, F. (1932): 'The natural resources of Africa', Journal of the Royal Africa Society 31 (123): 113-132.
108. MIHALYI, L. J. (1977): 'Electricity and electrification for Zambia', Geographical Review 67 (1): 63-70.
109. MILLER, D. S. and BRIGHOUSE, B. A. (1984): Thermal Discharges: A Guide to Power and Process Plant Cooling Water Discharges into Rivers, Lakes and Seas. BHRA Fluid Engineering Series 11, British Hydromechanics Research Association, Cranfield.
110. MINISTRY of FOREIGN AFFAIRS (2010): 'Power supply for speedy development', No. 3, February 2005, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Government of Ethiopia [online document]. URL [accessed 6 June 2011].
111. MONSTADT, J. (2009): 'Conceptualizing the political ecology of urban infrastructures: insights from technology and urban studies', Environment and Planning A 41 (8): 1924-1942.
112. MUKHEIBIR, P. (2007): 'Possible climate change impacts on large hydroelectricity schemes in Southern Africa', Journal of Energy in Southern Africa 18 (1): 4-9.
113. MULLER, C. (1945): 'Aluminum and power control', Journal of Land and Public Utility Economics 21 (2): 108-124.
114. NAIDOO, P. (2009): 'New strategies for harvesting large scale bulk energy from the Congo River without a conventional dam', paper presented at IEEE Power and Energy Society General Meeting, Calgary, AB, Canada, 26-30 July.
115. NEPAD (2010a): 'About NEPAD', New Partnership for Africa's Development Planning and Coordinating Agency, African Union [online document]. URL [accessed 9 July 2010].
116. NEPAD (2010b): 'What are the principles of NEPAD?', Frequently asked questions, New Partnership for Africa's Development Planning and Coordinating Agency, African Union [online document]. URL [accessed 5 June 2010].
117. NHAMO, G. (19981999): 'Eight SADC countries share the Zambezi River Basin', The Zambezi Newsletter 1, SARDC IMERCSA, Harare [online document]. URL [accessed 15 March 2007].
118. OLIVIER, H. (1976): Great Dams in Southern Africa. Purnell, Cape Town.
119. OLU-WRIGHT, R. J. (1968): 'The physical growth of Freetown', in FYFE, C. and JONES, E., (eds): Freetown: A Symposium. Sierra Leone University Press, Freetown, pp. 24-37.
120. PALSER, D. (2008): 'Electricity in Cape Town. Part 2 of "Lightening up the Fairest Cape 1895 to 1995"', WCB Engineering Bulletin 16 (4): 2-3.
121. PALSER, D. (2009): 'Electricity in Cape Town. Part 5: Graaf Electric Lighting Works - a glimmer of light', WCB Engineering Bulletin 17 (3): 5-6.
122. PANKHURST, R. (1985): History of Ethiopian Towns from the Mid-Nineteenth Century to 1935. Steiner, Stuttgart.
123. POTTINGER, L. (2003): 'Eskom's expanding empire - the social and ecological footprints of Africa's largest power utility', International Rivers Network [online document]. URL [accessed 6 June 2011].
124. PRICE, B. (1922): 'Minutes of Evidence taken before the Select Committee on Electricity Bill, 12 June 1922', Union of South Africa, Report of the Select Committee on the Electricity Bill, June 1922. Cape Town: Government Printer. Rhodes House, Oxford University. Africa (South):agriculture. 610.44r 5/1922(2).
125. PSI (2003): 'NEPAD: a step forward for Africa?', Public Services International [online document]. URL [accessed 22 June 2010].
126. RANGANATHAN, V. and MBEWE, A. C. (1995): 'Feast and famine: the case of Zambia's power sector', Energy Policy 23 (12): 1093-1096.
127. RCEER (2005): Guide to Electric Power in Ghana. 1st edn. Resource Center for Energy Economics and Regulation, Institute of Statistical, Social and Economic Research, University of Ghana, Legon.
128. REPORT of the PREPARATORY COMMISSION (1952): 'White Paper on the Volta River Aluminium Scheme', Appendices to the Report of the Preparatory Commission II, Appendix I, The Volta River Project (Cmd. 8702). HMSO, London.
129. RICHARDS, R. V. (1947): 'Report on the hydro-electric resources of East Africa, January 1947', Report to Chief Secretary, East African Governor's Conference, Nairobi, Kenya. HMSO, London.
130. ROBBINS, E. and LEGGE, R. (1959): Animal Dunkirk: The Story of Lake Kariba and 'Operation Noah', the Greatest Animal Rescue since the Ark. Herbert Jenkins, London.
131. ROSENBERG, D. M., McCULLY, P. and PRINGLE, C. M. (2000): 'Global-scale environmental effects of hydrological alterations: introduction', BioScience 50 (9): 746-751.
132. SANDSTRÖM, K. (1998): 'Can forests "provide" water? Widespread myth or scientific reality?', Ambio 27 (2): 132-138.
133. SAPP (undated): 'About SAPP', Southern African Power Pool [online document]. URL [accessed 28 April 2009].
134. SCHOEMAN, M. (2002): 'From SADCC to SADC and beyond: the politics of economic integration', paper presented at the XIII Economic History Conference, Buenos Aires, 22-26 July [online document]. URL [accessed 29 April 2009].
135. SCOTT LAING, W. J. (1957): 'From W. J. Scott Laing, British Embassy, Brussels to J. B. Smith, Commercial Relations and Exports, Department, Board of Trade, London, 3 May 1957', Confidential. P. No 65 (54316/57), PRO Foreign Office: Political Departments, General Correspondence from 1906 to 1966, Hydro-electric Power project Congo River. Public Record Office, Kew. FO 371/125403.
136. SELOUS, G. H. (1938): 'Memorandum on the Aswan Scheme. Part I - 1928-1938 (February)', in Foreign Office: Political Documents: General Correspondence from 1906-1966, POLITICAL: EGYPTIAN: Egypt and Sudan. Public Record Office, Kew. PRO FO 371/21993.
137. SHOWERS, K. B. (1989): 'Soil erosion in the Kingdom of Lesotho: origins and colonial response, 1830s-1950s', Journal of Southern African Studies 15 (2): 263-286.
138. SHOWERS, K. B. (1996): 'Soil erosion in the Kingdom of Lesotho and development of historical environmental impact assessment', Ecological Applications 6 (2): 653-664.
139. SHOWERS, K. B. (1998): Colonial and post-Apartheid water projects in southern Africa: political agendas and environmental consequences. Working Paper 214 African Studies Center, Boston University, Boston, MA.
140. SHOWERS, K. B. (2001): 'Dams and power in southern Africa', in MILLER, C., CIOC, M. and SHOWERS, K. B., (eds): Water and the Environment since 1945: Global Perspectives. St James Press, Detroit, MI, pp. 236-246.
141. SHOWERS, K. B. (2002): 'Water scarcity and urban Africa: an overview of urban-rural water linkages', World Development 30 (4): 621-648.
142. SHOWERS, K. B. (2005): Imperial Gullies: Soil Erosion and Conservation in Lesotho. Ohio University Press, Athens, OH.
143. SHOWERS, K. B. (2009): 'Congo River's Grand Inga hydroelectricity scheme: linking environmental history, policy and impact', Water History 1 (1): 31-58.
144. SHOWERS, K. B. (2011): 'Beyond mega on a mega continent: Grand Inga on Central Africa's Congo River', in BRUNN, S. D., (ed.): Engineering Earth: The Impacts of Megaengineering Projects. Springer, Dordrecht, pp. 1651-1679.
145. SHOWERS, K. B. and MALAHLEHA, G. M. (1992): 'Oral evidence in historical environmental impact assessment: soil conservation in Lesotho in the 1930s and 1940s', Journal of Southern African Studies 18 (2): 276-296.
146. SIMPSON, E. S. (1969): 'Electricity production in Nigeria', Economic Geography 45 (3): 239-257.
147. SWEERS, H. E. (1983): 'Heat discharge regulations and the problem of variability of natural water temperature', Water Science and Technology 15 (10): 119-133.
148. TECLAFF, L. A. (1996): 'Evolution of the river basin concept in national and international law', Natural Resources Journal 36 (2): 359-391.
149. TOLLINTOS, B. (1955): 'From B Tollintos, British Council, Leopoldville, Belgian Congo to Sir Anthony Eden, K.G., M.P., June 19, 1955', Confidential & Guard, No. 5 (1531/1/55). PRO Foreign Office: Political Departments: General Correspondence from 1906-1966. Hydro-electric power project Congo River. Public Record Office, Kew. FO 371/113570.
150. TREMMEL, M. (1994): The People of the Great River: The Tonga Hoped the Water Would Follow Them. Silveira House Social Series 9, Mambo Press, Gweru.
151. UPDEA (undated): 'What is UPDEA?', Union of Producers, Transporters and Distributors of Electric Power in Africa [online document]. URL [accessed 14 March 2007].
152. USGS (1921a): World Atlas of Commercial Geology, Part I: Distribution of Mineral Production. US Government Printing Office, Washington, DC.
153. USGS (1921b): World Atlas of Commercial Geology, Part II: Water Power of the World. United States Geological Service, Washington, DC.
154. VARIAN, H. F. (1931): 'The geography of the Benguela Railroad', Geographical Journal 78 (6): 497-523.
155. WALKER, P. A. (2005): 'Political ecology: where is the ecology?', Progress in Human Geography 29 (1): 73-82.
156. WILLIAMS, T. I. (1982): A Short History of Twentieth Century Technology, c. 1900-c. 1950. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
157. WILLS, A. J. (1967): An Introduction to the History of Central Africa. 2nd edn. Oxford University Press, London.
158. WORLD BANK (2002): 'A brighter future? Energy in Africa's development', Africa Energy Team, World Bank, Washington, DC [online document]. URL [accessed 9 August 2010].
159. WORTH, D. (1998): 'Lighting the darkness: the gas supply industry in nineteenth century Cape Town, and its role in the formation of an industrial landscape', paper presented at the Association for Industrial Archaeology Annual Conference, North Abott, Devon, 4-5 September.
160. Zesco (2002): 'historical Background Of Electricity Development In Zambia', Zesco Hydroelectric Power Projects, ZESCO [online document]. URL [accessed 23 July 2010].