Physical health problems after single trauma exposure: When stress takes root in the body

Journal of the American Psychiatric Nurses Association

Volumn 17, Issue 6, 2011, Pages 378-392

  D'Andrea, Wendy ^a   Sharma, Ritu ^b   Zelechoski, Amanda D ^c   Spinazzola, Joseph ^b  

^a NEW SCHOOL FOR SOCIAL RESEARCH   (United States)

^b The Trauma Center at Justice Resource Institute   (United States)

^c VALPARAISO UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

comorbidity; health; health behavior; posttraumatic stress trauma

Indexed keywords

HYDROCORTISONE;

CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE; COMORBIDITY; DISEASES; GASTROINTESTINAL DISEASE; HEALTH STATUS; HUMAN; IMMUNOPATHOLOGY; LIFE EVENT; MENTAL STRESS; MUSCULOSKELETAL DISEASE; PAIN; POSTTRAUMATIC STRESS DISORDER; PSYCHOSOMATIC DISORDER; REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH; REVIEW; RISK FACTOR;

CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES; COMORBIDITY; DISEASE; GASTROINTESTINAL DISEASES; HEALTH STATUS; HUMANS; HYDROCORTISONE; IMMUNE SYSTEM DISEASES; LIFE CHANGE EVENTS; MUSCULOSKELETAL DISEASES; PAIN; PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGIC DISORDERS; REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH; RISK FACTORS; STRESS DISORDERS, POST-TRAUMATIC; STRESS, PSYCHOLOGICAL;

EID: 82655189201     PISSN: 10783903     EISSN: 15325725     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/1078390311425187     Document Type: Review

References (120)

1. Albert C. M.,Ma J.,Rifai N.,Stampfer M. J.,Ridker P. M.Prospective study of C-reactive protein, homocysteine, and plasma lipid levels as predictors of sudden cardiac death.Circulation. 2002;105:2595-2599.
2. American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed., Text revision). Washington, DC: Author.
3. Amital D.,Fostick L.,Polliack M. L.,Segev S.,Zohar J.,Rubinow A.,Amital H.Posttraumatic stress disorder, tenderness, and fibromyalgia syndrome: Are they different entities?.Journal of Psychosomatic Research. 2006;61:663-669.
4. Anda R. F.,Croft J. B.,Felitti V. J.,Nordenberg D.,Giles W. H.,Williamson D. F.,Giovino G. A.Adverse childhood experiences and smoking during adolescence and adulthood.Journal of the American Medical Association. 1999;282:1652-1658.
5. Anda R. F.,Felitti V. J.,Bremner J. D.,Walker J. D.,Whitfield C.,Perry B. D.,. . .Giles W. H.The enduring effects of abuse and related adverse experiences in childhood: A convergence of evidence from neurobiology and epidemiology.European Archives of Psychiatry & Clinical Neuroscience. 2006;256:174-186.
6. Arguelles L. M.,Afari N.,Buchwald D. S.,Clauw D. J.,Furner S.,Goldberg J.A twin study of posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms and chronic widespread pain.Pain. 2006;124:150-157.
7. Armanini M. P.,Hutchins C.,Stein B. A.,Sapolsky R. M.Glucocorticoid endangerment of hippocampal neurons is NMDA-receptor dependent.Brain Research. 1990;532:7-12.
8. Barth J.,Kopfmann S.,Nyberg E.,Angenendt J.,Frommberger U.Posttraumatic stress disorders and extent of psychosocial impairments five years after a traffic accident.GMS Psycho-Social-Medicine. 2005;2:1-13.
9. Baum A.,Cohen L.,Hall M.Control and intrusive memories as possible determinants of chronic stress.Psychosomatic Medicine. 1993;55:274-286.
10. Beckham J. C.,Moore S. D.,Feldman M. E.,Hertzberg M. A.,Kirby A. C.,Fairbank J. A.Health status, somatization, and severity of posttraumatic stress disorder in Vietnam combat veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder.American Journal of Psychiatry. 1998;155:1565-1569.
11. Bell C. C.,Jenkis E. J.Community violence and children on Chicago's South Side.Psychiatry. 1993;56:46-54.
12. Berntson G. G.,Cacioppo J. T.,Quigley K. S.Cardiac psychophysiology and autonomic space in humans: Empirical perspectives and conceptual implications.Psychological Bulletin. 1993;114:296-322.
13. Bevans K.,Cerbone A.,Overstreet S.Advances and future directions in the study of children's neurobiological responses to trauma and violence exposure.Journal of Interpersonal Violence. 2005;20:418-425.
14. Boscarino J. A.Diseases among men 20 years after exposure to severe stress: Implications for clinical research and medical care.Psychosomatic Medicine. 1997;59:605-614.
15. Boscarino J. A.Biobehavioral stress response: Protective and damaging effects. Yehuda R.McEwen B., ed. New York: New York Academy of Sciences; 2004:141-153.
16. Boscarino J. A.,Chang J.Electrocardiogram abnormalities among men with stress-related psychiatric disorders: Implications for coronary heart disease and clinical research.Annals of Behavioral Medicine. 1999;21:227-234.
17. Bradley R.,Greene J.,Russ E.,Dutra L.,Westen D.A multidimensional meta-analysis of psychotherapy for PTSD.American Journal of Psychiatry. 2005;162:214-227.
18. Breslau N.The epidemiology of posttraumatic stress disorder: What is the extent of the problem?.Journal of Clinical Psychiatry. 2001;62:16-22.
19. Brewin C. R.,Kleiner J. S.,Vasterling J. J.,Field A. P.Memory for emotionally neutral information in posttraumatic stress disorder: A meta-analytic investigation.Journal of Abnormal Psychology. 2007;116:448-463.
20. Breznitz S.,Ben-Zur H.,Berzon Y.,Weiss D. W.,Levitan G.,Tarcic N.,. . .Zinder O.Experimental induction and termination of acute psychological stress in human volunteers: Effects on immunological, neuroendocrine, cardiovascular, and psychological parameters.Brain, Behavior, and Immunity. 1998;12:34-52.
21. Brydon L.,Magid K.,Steptoe A.Platelets, coronary heart disease, and stress.Brain, Behavior, and Immunity. 2006;20:113-119.
22. Buckley T. C.,Blanchard E. B.,Neill W. T.Information processing and PTSD: A review of the empirical literature.Clinical Psychology Review. 2000;20:1041-1065.
23. Buckley T. C.,Kaloupek D. G.A meta-analytic examination of basal cardiovascular activity in posttraumatic stress disorder.Psychosomatic Medicine. 2001;63:585-594.
24. Butler E. A.,Egloff B.,Wilhelm F. H.,Smith N. C.,Erickson E. A.,Gross J. J.The social consequences of expressive suppression.Emotion. 2003;3:48-67.
25. Cook A.,Spinazzola J.,Ford J.,Lanktree J.,Blaustein M.,Cloitre M.,. . .van der Kolk B.Complex trauma in children and adolescents.Psychiatric Annals. 2005;35:390-398.
26. Creamer M.,Burgess P.,McFarlane A. C.Post-traumatic stress disorder: Findings from the Australian national survey of mental health and well-being.Psychological Medicine: A Journal of Research in Psychiatry and the Allied Sciences. 2001;31:1237-1247.
27. De Bellis M. D.Developmental traumatology: The psychobiological development of maltreated children and its implications for research, treatment, and policy.Development and Psychopathology. 2001;13:539-564.
28. de Kloet C. S.,Vermetten E.,Heijnen C. J.,Geuze E.,Lentjes E. G.,Westenberg H. G.Enhanced cortisol suppression in response to dexamethasone administration in traumatized veterans with and without posttraumatic stress disorder.Psychoneuroendocrinology. 2007;32:215-226.
29. Delahanty D. L.,Wang T.,Maravich C.,Forlenza M.,Baum A.Time-of-day effects on response of natural killer cells to acute stress in men and women.Health Psychology. 2000;19:39-45.
30. Dorn T.,Yzermans J. C.,Spreeuwenberg P. M. M.,Schilder A.,van der Zee J.A cohort study of the long-term impact of a fire disaster on the physical and mental health of adolescents.Journal of Traumatic Stress. 2008;21:239-242.
31. Dougall A. L.,Baum A.Trauma and health: Physical health consequences of exposure to extreme stress. Schnurr P. P.Green B. L., ed. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association; 2004:129-155.
32. Farley M.,Patsalides B. M.Physical symptoms, posttraumatic stress disorder, and healthcare utilization of women with and without childhood physical and sexual abuse.Psychological Reports. 2001;89:595-606.
33. Farthing M. J. G.Irritable bowel, irritable body, or irritable brain?.British Medical Journal. 1995;310:171-175.
34. Felitti V. J.,Anda R. F.,Nordenberg D.,Williamson D. F.,Spitz A. M.,Edwards V.,. . .Marks J. S.Relationship of childhood abuse and household dysfunction to many of the leading causes of death in adults: The Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACE) Study.American Journal of Preventive Medicine. 1998;14:245-258.
35. Fifer S. K.,Mathias S. D.,Patrick D. L.,Mazonson P. D.,Lubeck D. P.,Buesching D. P.Untreated anxiety among adult primary care patients in a health maintenance organization.Archives of General Psychiatry. 1994;51:740-750.
36. Finkelhor D.,Hotaling G.,Lewis I. A.,Smith C.Sexual abuse in a national survey of adult men and women: Prevalence, characteristics and risk factors.Child Abuse & Neglect. 1990;14:19-28.
37. Fleisher D. R.Cyclic vomiting syndrome: A paroxysmal disorder of brain-gut interaction.Journal of Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition. 1997;25 (Suppl. 1): S13-S15.
38. Flett R. A.,Kazantzis N.,Long N. R.,MacDonald C.,Millar M.Traumatic events and physical health in a New Zealand community sample.Journal of Traumatic Stress. 2002;15:303-312.
39. Friedman M. J.,McEwen B. S.Trauma and health: Physical health consequences of exposure to extreme stress. Schnurr P. P.Green B. L., ed. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association; 2004:157-188.
40. Frisina P. G.,Borod J. C.,Lepore S. J.A meta-analysis of the effects of written emotional disclosure on the health outcomes of clinical populations.Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease. 2004;192:629-634.
41. Geerse G. J.,van Gurp V. M.,Wiegant R. S.,Stam R.Individual reactivity to the open-field predicts the expression of cardiovascular and behavioural sensitization to novel stress.Behavioural Brain Research. 2006;175:9-17.
42. Grahn R. E.,Kalman B. A.,Brennan F. X.,Watkins L. R.,Maier S. F.The elevated plus maze is not sensitive to the effect of stressor controllability in rats.Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior. 1995;52:565-570.
43. Gross J. J.Emotion regulation: Affective, cognitive, and social consequences.Psychophysiology. 2002;39:281-291.
44. Gross J. J.,John O. P.Individual differences in two emotion regulation processes: Implications for affect, relationships, and well-being.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 2003;85:348-362.
45. Gross J. J.,Levenson R. W.Emotional suppression: Physiology, self-report, and expressive behavior.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 1993;64:970-986.
46. Hagemann T.,Levenson R. W.,Gross J. J.Expressive suppression during an acoustic startle.Psychophysiology. 2006;43:104-112.
47. Haviland M. G.,Morton K. R.,Oda K.,Fraser G. E.Traumatic experiences, major life stressors, and self-reporting a physician-given fibromyalgia diagnosis.Psychiatry Research. 2010;177:335-341.
48. Heim C.,Newport D. J.,Bonsall R.,Miller A. H.,Nemeroff C. B.Altered pituitary-adrenal axis responses to provocative challenge tests in adult survivors of childhood abuse.American Journal of Psychiatry. 2001;158:575-581.
49. Heim C.,Newport D. J.,Heit S.,Graham Y. P.,Wilcox M.,Bonsall R.,. . .Nemeroff C. B.Pituitary-adrenal and autonomic responses to stress in women after sexual and physical abuse in childhood.Journal of the American Medical Association. 2000;284:592-597.
50. Helmes E.,McNeill P. D.,Holden R. R.,Jackson C.The construct of alexithymia: Associations with defense mechanisms.Journal of Clinical Psychology. 2008;64:318-331.
51. Holman E. A.,Silver R. C.,Poulin M.,Andersen J.,Gil-Rivas V.,McIntosh D. N.Terrorism, acute stress, and cardiovascular health: A 3-year national study following the September 11th attacks.Archives of General Psychiatry. 2008;65:73-80.
52. Horwitz B. J.,Fisher R. S.The irritable bowel syndrome.New England Journal of Medicine. 2001;344:1846-1850.
53. Huang M.,Pang X.,Karalis K.,Theoharides T. C.Stress-induced interleukin-6 release in mice is mast cell-dependent and more pronounced in apolipoprotein E knockout mice.Cardiovascular Research. 2003;59:241-249.
54. Insel T.,Cuthbert B.,Garvey M.,Heinssen R.,Pine D. S.,Quinn K,. . .Wang P.Research domain criteria (RDoC): Toward a new classification framework for research on mental disorders.American Journal of Psychiatry. 2010;167:748-751.
55. Irish L.,Kobayashi I.,Delahanty D.J.Long-term physical health consequences of childhood sexual abuse: A meta-analytic review.Journal of Pediatric Psychology. 2010;35:450-461.
56. Irwin C.,Falsetti S. A.,Lydiard R. B.,Ballenger J. C.,Brock C. D.,Brener W.Comorbidity of posttraumatic stress disorder and irritable bowel syndrome.Journal of Clinical Psychiatry. 1996;5:576-578.
57. Jorgensen R. S.,Johnson B. T.,Kolodziej M. E.,Schreer G. E.Elevated blood pressure and personality: A meta-analytic review.Psychological Bulletin. 1996;120:293-320.
58. Jula A.,Salminen J. K.,Saarijarvi S.Alexithymia: A facet of essential hypertension.Hypertension. 1999;33:1057-1061.
59. Karl A.,Schaefer M.,Malta L. S.,Dörfel D.,Rohleder N.,Werner A.A meta-analysis of structural brain abnormalities in PTSD.Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews. 2006;30:1004-1031.
60. Kawamura N.,Kim Y,Asukai N.Suppression of cellular immunity in men with a past history of posttraumatic stress disorder.American Journal of Psychiatry. 2001;158:484-486.
61. Kessler R. C.,Anthony J. C.,Blazer D. G.,Bromet E.,Eaton W. W.,Kendler K.,. . .Zhao S.The US national comorbidity survey: Overview and future directions.Epidemiologia e Psichiatria Sociale. 1997;6:4-16.
62. Kessler R. C.,Sonnega A.,Bromet E.,Hughes M.,Nelson C. B.Posttraumatic stress disorder in the national comorbidity survey.Archives of General Psychiatry. 1995;52:1048-1060.
63. Koren D.,Arnon I.,Klein E.Long term course of chronic posttraumatic stress disorder in traffic accident victims: A three-year prospective follow-up study.Behaviour Research and Therapy. 2001;39:1449-1458.
64. Kulka R. A.,Schlenger W. E.,Fairbank J. A.,Hough R. L.,Jordan B. K.,Marmar C. R.,. . .Cranston A.Trauma and the Vietnam War generation: Report of findings from the National Vietnam Veterans Readjustment Study. New York, NY: Brunner/Mazel; 1990:.
65. Lauterbach D.,Vora R.,Rakow M.The relationship between posttraumatic stress disorder and self-reported health problems.Psychosomatic Medicine. 2005;67:939-947.
66. Lawler C.,Ouimette P.,Dahlstedt D.Posttraumatic stress symptoms, coping, and physical health status among university students seeking health care.Journal of Traumatic Stress. 2005;18:741-750.
67. Lazarus R. S.,McCleary R. A.Autonomic discrimination without awareness: A study of subception.Psychological Review. 1951;58:113-122.
68. Leserman J.,Drossman D. A.,Zhiming L.,Toomey T. C.,Nachman G.,Glogau L.Sexual and physical abuse history in gastroenterology practice: How types of abuse impact health status.Psychosomatic Medicine. 1996;58:4-15.
69. Lipowski Z. J.Somatization: The concept and its clinical application.American Journal of Psychiatry. 1988;145:1358-1368.
70. Matsubayashi H.,Hosaka T.,Makino T.Perspectives on the psychology of aggression. Morgan J. P., ed. Hauppauge, NY: Nova Science; 2006:111-124.
71. McCaslin S. E.,Metzler T. J.,Best S. R.,Liberman A.,Weiss D. S.,Fagan J.,Marmar C. R.Alexithymia and PTSD symptoms in urban police officers: Cross-sectional and prospective findings.Journal of Traumatic Stress. 2006;19:361-373.
72. McEwen B. S.Stressed or stressed out: What is the difference?.Journal of Psychiatry & Neuroscience. 2005;30:315-318.
73. McEwen B. S.,Wingfield J. C.The concept of allostasis in biology and biomedicine.Hormones and Behavior. 2003;43:2-15.
74. McFarlane A. C.,Atchison M.,Rafalowicz E.,Papay P.Physical symptoms in post-traumatic stress disorder.Journal of Psychosomatic Research. 1994;38:715-726.
75. Miller G. E.,Chen E.,Zhou E. S.If it goes up, must it come down? Chronic stress and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical axis in humans.Psychological Bulletin. 2007;133:25-45.
76. Morrissey J. P.,Ellis A. R.,Gatz M.,Amaro H.,Reed B. G.,Savage A.,. . .Banks S.Outcomes for women with co-occurring disorders and trauma: Program and person-level effects.Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment. 2005;28:121-133.
77. Murray C.,Flynn J.,Ratcliffe L.,Jacyna M.,Kamm M.,Emmanuel A.Acute physical and psychological stress and its influence on autonomic outflow to the gut in irritable bowel syndrome.Gut. 2004;53 (4): A29.
78. Muth E.,Koch K.,Stern R.,Thayer J.Effect of autonomic nervous system manipulations on gastric myoelectrical activity and emotional responses in healthy human subjects.Psychosomatic Medicine. 1999;61:297-303.
79. Nanni V.,Uher R.,Danese A.Childhood maltreatment predicts unfavorable course of illness and treatment outcome in depression: A meta-analysis.American Journal of Psychiatry. 2011;:.
80. Neumann D. A.,Houskamp B. M.,Pollock V. E.,Briere J.The long-term sequelae of childhood sexual abuse in women: A meta-analytic review.Child Maltreatment. 1996;1:6-16.
81. Newton T. L.,Contrada R. J.Alexithymia and repression: Contrasting emotion-focused coping styles.Psychosomatic Medicine. 1994;56:457-462.
82. Norris F. H.,Slone L. B.,Baker C. K.,Murphy A. D.Early physical health consequences of disaster exposure and acute disaster-related PTSD.Anxiety, Stress, & Coping: An International Journal. 2006;19:95-110.
83. Pavuluri M. N.,Henry D. B.,Carbray J. A.,Sampson G. A.,Naylor M. W.,Janicak P. G.A one-year open-label trial of risperidone augmentation in lithium nonresponder youth with preschool-onset bipolar disorder.Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology. 2006;16:336-350.
84. Pennebaker J. W.Writing about emotional experiences as a therapeutic process.Psychological Science. 1997;8:162-166.
85. Pennebaker J. W.,Beall S. K.Confronting a traumatic event: Toward an understanding of inhibition and disease.Journal of Abnormal Psychology. 1986;95:274-281.
86. Phelps E. A.,Delgado M. R.,Nearing K. I.,LeDoux J. E.Extinction learning in humans: Role of the amygdala and vmPFC.Neuron. 2004;43:897-905.
87. Pitman R. K.,Orr S. P.,Shalev A.Once bitten, twice shy: Beyond the conditioning model of PTSD.Biological Psychiatry. 1993;33:145-146.
88. Pole N.The psychophysiology of posttraumatic stress disorder: A meta-analysis.Psychological Bulletin. 2007;133:725-746.
89. Resnick H.,Acierno R.,Kilpatrick D.Health impact of interpersonal violence: II. Medical and mental health outcomes.Behavioral Medicine. 1997;23 (2): 65-78.
90. Richards J. M.,Gross J. J.Emotion regulation and memory: The cognitive costs of keeping one's cool.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 2000;79:410-424.
91. Rogal S. S.,Poschman K.,Belanger K.,Howell H. B.,Smith M. V.,Medina J.,Yonkers K. A.Effects of posttraumatic stress disorder on pregnancy outcomes.Journal of Affective Disorders. 2007;102:137-143.
92. Roy-Byrne P.,Smith W. R.,Goldberg J.,Afari N.,Buchwald D.Post-traumatic stress disorder among patients with chronic pain and chronic fatigue.Psychological Medicine: A Journal of Research in Psychiatry and the Allied Sciences. 2004;34 (2): 363-368.
93. Schnurr P. P.,Ford J. D.,Friedman M. J.,Green B. L.,Dain B. J.,Sengupta A.Predictors and outcomes of posttraumatic stress disorder in World War II veterans exposed to mustard gas.Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. 2000;68:258-268.
94. Schnurr, P. P., & Jankowski, M. K. (1999). Physical health and post-traumatic stress disorder: Review and synthesis. Seminars in Clinical Neuropsychiatry, 4, 295-304.
95. Schnurr P. P.,Spiro A.Combat disorder, posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms, and health behaviors as predictors of self-reported physical health in older veterans.Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease. 1999;187:353-359.
96. Schnurr P. P.,Spiro A.,Paris A. H.Physician-diagnosed medical disorders in relation to PTSD symptoms in older male military veterans.Health Psychology. 2000;19:91-97.
97. Selye H.The stress of life. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill; 1956:.
98. Seng J. S.,Clark M. K.,McCarthy A. M.,Ronis D. L.PTSD and physical comorbidity among women receiving Medicaid: Results from service-use data.Journal of Traumatic Stress. 2006;19:45-56.
99. Sesso H. D.,Buring J. E.,Rifai N.,Blake G. J.,Gaziano J. M.,Ridker P. M.C-reactive protein and the risk of developing hypertension.Journal of the American Medical Association. 2003;290:2945-2951.
100. Shalev A. Y.,Rogel-Fuchs Y.Psychophysiology of the posttraumatic stress disorder: From sulfur fumes to behavioral genetics [Review].Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease. 1993;55:413-423.
101. Sledjeski E. M.,Speisman B.,Dierker L.C.Does the number of lifetime traumas explain the relationship between PTSD and chronic medical conditions? Answers from the National Comorbidity Survey-Replication (NCS-R).Journal of Behavioral Medicine. 2008;31:341-349.
102. Smith M.Bilateral hippocampal volume reduction in adults with post-traumatic stress disorder: A meta-analysis of structural MRI studies.Hippocampus. 2005;15:798-807.
103. Snape W. J.,Carlson G.M.,Matarazzo S. A.,Cohen S.Evidence that abnormal myoelectrical activity produces colonic motor dysfunction in the irritable bowel syndrome.Gastroenterology. 1977;72:383-387.
104. Spinhoven P.,Roelofs K.,Moene F.,Kuyk J.,Nijenhuis E.,Hoogduin K.,Van Dyck R.Trauma and dissociation in conversion disorder and chronic pelvic pain.International Journal of Psychiatry in Medicine. 2004;34:305-318.
105. Stam R.PTSD and stress sensitization: A tale of brain and body. Part 1: Human studies.Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews. 2007;31:530-557.
106. Stein M. B.,McQuaid J. R.,Pedrelli P.,Lenox R.,McCahill M.E.Posttraumatic stress disorder in the primary care medical setting.General Hospital Psychiatry. 2000;22:261-269.
107. Steptoe A,Hamer M.,Chida Y.The effects of acute psychological stress on circulating inflammatory factors in humans: A review and meta-analysis.Brain, Behavior, and Immunity. 2007;21:901-912.
108. Taylor G. J.Alexithymia: Concept, measurement, and implications for treatment.American Journal of Psychiatry. 1984;141:725-732.
109. Theoharides T. C.,Cochran D. E.Critical role of mast cells in inflammatory diseases and the effect of acute stress.Journal of Neuroimmunology. 2004;146:1-12.
110. Uchino B. N.,Holt-Lunstad J.,Bloor L. E.,Campo R. A.Aging and cardiovascular reactivity to stress: Longitudinal evidence for changes in stress reactivity.Psychology and Aging. 2005;20 (1): 134-143.
111. Ullman S. E.,Siegel J. M.Traumatic events and physical health in a community sample.Journal of Traumatic Stress. 1996;9:703-720.
112. Von Kanel R.,Hepp U.,Buddeberg C.,Keel M.,Mica L.,Aschbacher K.,Schnyder U.Altered blood coagulation in patients with posttraumatic stress disorder.Psychosomatic Medicine. 2006;68:598-604.
113. Waldstein S. R.,Kauhanen J.,Neumann S. A.,Katzel L. I.Alexithymia and cardiovascular risk in older adults: Psychosocial, psychophysiological, and biomedical correlates.Psychology & Health. 2002;17:597-610.
114. Walker E. A.,Gelfand A. N.,Gelfand M. D.,Koss M. P.Medical and psychiatric symptoms in female gastroenterology clinic patients with histories of sexual victimization.General Hospital Psychiatry. 1995;17:85-92.
115. Weisberg R. B.,Bruce S. E.,Machlan J. T.,Kessler R. C.,Culpepper L.,Keller M. B.Nonpsychiatric illness among primary care patients with trauma histories and posttraumatic stress disorder.Psychiatric Services. 2002;53:848-854.
116. Wilson D. K.,Kliewer W.,Plybon L.,Zacharias J.,Teasley N.,Sica D. A.Violence exposure and ambulatory blood pressure in African-American adolescents.International Journal of Rehabilitation and Health. 1998;4:223-232.
117. Wong P.,Bernat E. B.,Bunce S.,Shevrin H.Brain indices of nonconscious associative learning.Consciousness and Cognition: An International Journal. 1997;6:519-544.
118. Wong P.,Shevrin H.,Williams W. J.Conscious and nonconscious processes: An ERP index of an anticipatory response in a conditioning paradigm using visually masked stimuli.Psychophysiology. 1994;31:87-101.
119. Zatzick D. F.,Kang S.,Müller H.,Russo J. E.,Rivara F. P.,Katon W.,. . .Roy-Byrne P.Predicting posttraumatic distress in hospitalized trauma survivors with acute injuries.American Journal of Psychiatry. 2002;159:941-946.
120. Zimmerman M.,McGlinchey J. B.,Chelminski I.,Young D.Diagnostic co-morbidity in 2300 psychiatric out-patients presenting for treatment evaluated with a semi-structured diagnostic interview.Psychological Medicine: A Journal of Research in Psychiatry and the Allied Sciences. 2008;38:199-210.