The incremental value of lipids and inflammatory biomarkers in determining residual cardiovascular risk

Current Atherosclerosis Reports

Volumn 13, Issue 5, 2011, Pages 373-380

  Mangalmurti, Sandeep S ^a   Davidson, Michael H ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO   (United States)

Author keywords

Apo A I; Apo B; LDL P; Lipoprotein (a); Lp PLA2

Indexed keywords

APOLIPOPROTEIN A1; APOLIPOPROTEIN B; BIOLOGICAL MARKER; C REACTIVE PROTEIN; LIPOPROTEIN A; LOW DENSITY LIPOPROTEIN CHOLESTEROL; PHOSPHOLIPASE A2;

ARTICLE; CARDIOVASCULAR RISK; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; HUMAN; PATIENT ASSESSMENT; PATIENT IDENTIFICATION; PROGNOSIS; RISK ASSESSMENT; RISK FACTOR;

APOLIPOPROTEINS; ATHEROSCLEROSIS; BIOLOGICAL MARKERS; C-REACTIVE PROTEIN; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES; HUMANS; INFLAMMATION; LIPIDS; LIPOPROTEIN(A); LIPOPROTEINS, LDL; PHOSPHOLIPASES A2; PREDICTIVE VALUE OF TESTS; PRIMARY PREVENTION; RISK ASSESSMENT; RISK FACTORS; SECONDARY PREVENTION;

EID: 81055145062     PISSN: 15233804     EISSN: 15346242     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s11883-011-0190-3     Document Type: Article

References (100)

1. Current Status and Future Directions: Report of a National Heart, Lung, Identifying Patients at High Risk of a Cardiovascular Event in the Near Future: Current Status and Future Directions: Report of a National Heart, Lung, Blood InstituteWorking Group, Eagle KA, Ginsburg GS, Musunuru K, et al. Circulation. 2010;121:1447-54.
2. Grundy SM, Cleeman JI, Merz CN, et al. Implications of recent clinical trials for the National Cholesterol Education Program Adult Treatment Panel III guidelines. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2004;24:e149-61.
3. Sniderman AD, St-Pierre AC, Cantin B, Dagenais GR, et al. Concordance/discordance between plasma apolipoprotein B levels and the cholesterol indexes of atherosclerotic risk. Am J Cardiol. 2003;91:1173-7. (Pubitemid 36561379)
4. Davidson MH. Is LDL-C passed its prime? The emerging role of non-HDL, LDL-P, and ApoB in CHD risk assessment. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2008;28:1582-3.
5. Kastelein JJ, van der Steeg WA, Holme I, TNT Study Group, IDEAL Study Group, et al. Lipids, apolipoproteins, and their ratios in relation to cardiovascular events with statin treatment. Circulation. 2008;117:3002-9.
6. Davidson M. Is LDL-C passed its prime? The emerging role of non-HDL, LDL-P, and ApoB in CHD risk assessment. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2008;28:1582-3.
7. Otvos JD, Jeyarajah EJ, Cromwell WC. Measurement issues related to lipoprotein heterogeneity. Am J Cardiol. 2002;90:22i-9i. (Pubitemid 35284908)
8. Cromwell WC, Otvos JD. Low-density lipoprotein particle number and risk for cardiovascular disease. Curr Atheroscler Rep. 2004;6:381-7. (Pubitemid 39359480)
9. Cromwell WC, Otvos JD. Heterogeneity of low-density lipoprotein particle number in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol <100 mg/dl. Am J Cardiol. 2006;98:1599-602. (Pubitemid 44827965)
10. Otvos JD, Mora S, Shalaurova I, et al. Clinical implications of discordance between low-density lipoprotein cholesterol and particle number. J Clin Lipidol. 2011;5:105-13.
11. Tabas I, Williams KJ, Boren J. Subendothelial lipoprotein retention as the initiating process in atherosclerosis: update and therapeutic implications. Circulation. 2007;116:1832-44. (Pubitemid 350287108)
12. Barter PJ, Ballantyne CM, Carmena R, et al. Apo B versus cholesterol in estimating cardiovascular risk and in guiding therapy: report of the thirty-person/ten-country panel. J Intern Med. 2006;259:247-58.
13. Brunzell JD, Davidson M, Furberg CD et al. Lipoprotein management in patients with cardiometabolic risk: consensus conference report from the American Diabetes Association and the American College of Cardiology Foundation. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2008;51:1512-24. (Pubitemid 351470037)
14. Contois JH, McConnell JP, Sethi AA, et al. Apolipoprotein B and cardiovascular disease risk: position statement from the AACC Lipoproteins and Vascular Diseases Division Working Group on Best Practices. Clin Chem. 2009;55:407-19.
15. Sniderman AD. Differential response of cholesterol and particle measures of atherogenic lipoproteins to LDLlowering therapy: implications for clinical practice. J Clin Lipidol. 2008;2:36-42. (Pubitemid 351250867)
16. Marcovina SM, Koschinsky ML. Lipoprotein(a) as a risk factor for coronary artery disease. Am J Cardiol. 1998;82(12A):57U-66U. (Pubitemid 29047617)
17. Boffa MB, Marcovina SM, Koschinsky ML. Lipoprotein(a) as a risk factor for atherosclerosis and thrombosis: mechanistic insights from animal models. Clin Biochem. 2004;37(5):333-43. (Pubitemid 38490450)
18. Nielsen LB, Juul K, Nordestgaard BG. Increased degradation of lipoprotein(a) in atherosclerotic compared with nonlesioned aortic intima-inner media of rabbits: in vivo evidence that lipoprotein(a) may contribute to foam cell formation. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 1998;18(4):641-9. (Pubitemid 28177906)
19. The Emerging Risk Factors Collaboration. Lipoprotein(a) concentration and the risk of coronary heart disease, stroke and nonvascular mortality. JAMA. 2009;302:412-23.
20. Bennet A, Di Angelantonio E, Erqou S, et al. Lipoprotein(a) levels and risk of future coronary heart disease: large-scale prospective data. Arch Intern Med. 2008;168(6):598-608. (Pubitemid 351468395)
21. Clarke R, Peden JF, Hopewell JC, et al. Genetic variants associated with Lp(a) lipoprotein level and coronary disease. N Engl J Med. 2009;361:2518-28.
22. Kamstrup PR, Tybjaerg-Hansen A, Steffensen R, et al. Genetically elevated lipoprotein(a) and increased risk of myocardial infarction. JAMA. 2009;301:2331-9.
23. Boerwinkle E, Leffert CC, Lin J, et al. Apolipoprotein(a) gene accounts for greater than 90% of the variation in plasma lipoprotein(a) concentrations. J Clin Invest. 1992;90:52-60.
24. Scanu AM. Lipoprotein(a) and the atherothrombotic process: mechanistic insights and clinical implications. Curr Atheroscler Rep. 2003;5:106-13. (Pubitemid 38898860)
25. Tsimikas S, Clopton P, Brilakis ES, et al. Relationship of oxidized phospholipids on apolipoprotein B-100 particles to race/ethnicity, apolipoprotein(a) isoform size, and cardiovascular risk factors: results from the Dallas Heart Study. Circulation. 2009;119:1711-9.
26. Zeljkovic A, Bogavac-Stanojevic N, Jelic-Ivanovic Z, et al. Combined effects of small apolipoprotein (a) isoforms and small, dense LDL on coronary artery disease risk. Arch Med Res. 2009;40:29-35.
27. Erqu S, Thompson A, Di Angelantonio E, et al. Apolipoprotein (a) isoforms and the risk of vascular disease. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2010;55:2160-7.
28. Greenland P, Alpert JS, Beller GA, et al. ACCF/AHA guideline for assessment of cardiovascular risk in asymptomatic adults. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2010;56:50-103.
29. Devaraj S, Xu DY, Jialal I. C-reactive protein increases plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 expression and activity in human aortic endothelial cells: implications for the metabolic syndrome and atherothrombosis. Circulation. 2003;107:398-404.
30. Bhakdi S, Torzewski M, Klouche M, Hemmes M. Complement and atherogenesis: binding of CRP to degraded, nonoxidized LDL enhances complement activation. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 1999;19:2348-54. (Pubitemid 29477835)
31. Zwaka TP, Hombach V, Torzewski J. C-reactive protein-mediated low density lipoprotein uptake by macrophages: implications for atherosclerosis. Circulation. 2001;103:1194-7. (Pubitemid 32221339)
32. Ridker PM, Riffai N, Rose L, Buring JE, Cook NR. Comparison of C-reactive protein and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels in the prediction of first cardiovascular events. N Engl J Med. 2002;347:1557-65. (Pubitemid 35315836)
33. Ridker PM, Glynn RJ, Hennekens CH. C-reactive protein adds to the predictive value of total and HDL cholesterol in determining risk of first myocardial infarction. Circulation. 1998;97:2007-11. (Pubitemid 28243661)
34. Ridker PM. High-sensitivity C-reactive protein: potential adjunct for global risk assessment in the primary prevention of cardiovascular disease. Circulation. 2001;103:1813-8. (Pubitemid 32291421)
35. Ridker PM, Hennekens CH, Buring JE, Rifai N. C-reactive protein and other markers of inflammation in the prediction of cardiovascular disease in women. N Engl J Med. 2000;342:836-43. (Pubitemid 30165206)
36. Zebrack JS, Muhlestein JB, Horne BD, et al. C-reactive protein and angiographic coronary artery disease: independent and additive predictors of risk in subjects with angina. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2002;39:632-7. (Pubitemid 34158159)
37. Pearson TA, Mensah GA, Alexander RW, et al. Markers of inflammation and cardiovascular disease: application to clinical and public health practice: a statement for healthcare professionals from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2003;107:499-511. (Pubitemid 36158056)
38. Greenland P, Alpert JS, Beller GA, et al. ACCF/AHA guideline for assessment of cardiovascular risk in asymptomatic adults. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2010;56:50-103.
39. Ridker PM, Danielson E, Fonseca FA, et al. Rosuvastatin to prevent vascular events in men and women with elevated Creactive protein. N Engl J Med. 2008;359:2195-207.
40. Ahmed S, Cannon CP, Murphy SA, et al. Acute coronary syndromes and diabetes: is intensive lipid lowering beneficial? Results of the PROVE IT-TIMI 22 trial. Eur Heart J. 2006;27:2323-9. (Pubitemid 44453576)
41. Morrow DA, de Lemos JA, Sabatine MS, et al. Clinical relevance of C-reactive protein during follow-up of patients with acute coronary syndromes in the Aggrastat-to-Zocor Trial. Circulation. 2006;114:281-8. (Pubitemid 44297094)
42. Macphee CH, Moores KE, Boyd HF, et al. Lipoprotein-associated phospholipase A2, platelet-activating factor acetylhydrolase, generates two bioactive products during the oxidation of low-density lipoprotein: use of a novel inhibitor. Biochem J. 1999;338:479-87.
43. Lavi S, McConnell JP, Rihal CS, et al. Local production of lipoprotein-associated phospholipase A2 and lysophosphatidylcholine in the coronary circulation: association with early coronary atherosclerosis and endothelial dysfunction in humans. Circulation. 2007;115:2715-21. (Pubitemid 46842787)
44. Kolodgie FD, Burke AP, Skorija KS, et al. Lipoprotein-associated phospholipase A2 protein expression in the natural progression of human coronary atherosclerosis. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2006;26:2523-9. (Pubitemid 44607475)
45. Vickers KC, Maguire C, Wolfert RL, et al. Quantitation and distribution of lipoprotein-associated phospholipase A2 and oxidized low-density lipoprotein in atherosclerotic lesions of carotid endarterectomy tissues. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2006;47 (suppl A):346A.
46. Mannheim D, Herrmann J, Versari D, et al. Enhanced expression of Lp-PLA2 and lysophosphatidylcholine in symptomatic carotid atherosclerotic plaque. Stroke. 2008;39:1445-8.
47. Herrmann J, Mannheim D, Wohlert C, et al. Expression of lipoprotein-associated phospholipase A2 in carotid artery plaques predicts long-term cardiac outcome. Eur Heart J. 2009;30:2930-8.
48. Brilakis ES, McConnell JP, Lennon RJ, et al. Association of lipoprotein-associated phospholipase A2 levels with coronary artery disease risk factors, angiographic coronary artery disease, and major adverse events at follow-up. Eur Heart J. 2005;26:137-44. (Pubitemid 40282781)
49. Winkler K,Winkelmann BR, Scharnagl H, et al. Platelet-activating factor acetylhydrolase activity indicates angiographic coronary artery disease independently of systemic inflammation and other risk factors. Circulation. 2005;111:980-7. (Pubitemid 40354515)
50. Sabatine MS, Morrow DA, O'Donoghue M, et al. Prognostic utility of lipoprotein-associated phospholipase A2 for cardiovascular outcomes in patients with stable coronary artery disease. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2007;27:2463-9. (Pubitemid 350203965)
51. Mockel M, Muller R, Vollert JO, et al. Lipoprotein-associated phospholipase A2 for early risk stratification in patients with suspected acute coronary syndrome: a multi-marker approach. The North Wuerttemberg and Berlin Infarction Study-II (NOBISII). Clin Res Cardiol. 2007;96:604-12.
52. Oldgren J, James SK, Siegbahn A, et al. Lipoprotein-associated phospholipase A2 does not predict mortality or new ischaemic events in acute coronary syndrome patients. Eur Heart J. 2007;28:699-704. (Pubitemid 46439239)
53. O'Donoghue M, Morrow DA, Sabatine MS, et al. Lp-PLA2 and its association with cardiovascular outcomes in patients with acute coronary syndromes in the PROVE IT TIMI-22 (PRavastatin Or atorVastatin Evaluation and Infection-Thrombolysis in Myocardial Infarction) trial. Circulation. 2006;113:1745-52. (Pubitemid 43958467)
54. Gerber Y, McConnell JP, Jaffe AS, et al. Lipoprotein-associated phospholipase A2 and prognosis after myocardial infarction in the community. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2006;26:2517-22. (Pubitemid 44607474)
55. Koenig W, Twardella D, Brenner H, et al. Lipoprotein-associated phospholipase A2 predicts future cardiovascular events in patients with coronary heart disease independently of traditional risk factors, markers of inflammation, renal function and hemodynamic stress (KAROLA). Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2006;26:1586-93.
56. Khuseyinova N, Imhof A, Rothenbacher D, et al. Association between Lp-PLA2 and coronary artery disease: focus on its relationship with lipoproteins and markers of inflammation and hemostasis (HELICOR). Atherosclerosis. 2005;182:181-8. (Pubitemid 41188385)
57. The Lp-PLA2 Studies Collaboration. Lipoprotein-associated phospholipase A2 and risk of coronary disease, stroke, and mortality: collaborative analysis of 32 prospective studies. Lancet. 2010;375:1536-44.
58. Robins SJ, Collins D, Nelson JJ, et al. Cardiovascular events with increased lipoprotein-associated phospholipase A2 and low high-density lipoprotein-cholesterol. The Veterans Affairs HDL Intervention Trial. Anterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2008;28.
59. Elkind MS, Tai W, Coates K, et al. High-sensitivity C-reactive protein, lipoprotein-associated phospholipase A2, and outcome after ischemic stroke (NOMAS). Arch Intern Med. 2006;166:2073-80. (Pubitemid 44631394)
60. Furie KM, Parides MK, Greer DM, et al. Lipoprotein-associated phospholipase A2 activity predicts early stroke recurrence. Stroke. 2007;382s:458.
61. Wassertheil-Smoller S, Kooperberg C, McGinn AP, et al. Lipoprotein-associated phospholipase A2 and risk of ischemic stroke in postmenopausal women: the Women's Health Initiative Observational Study. Circulation. 2007;115:e222.
62. Corson MA, Jones PH, Davidson MH. Review of the evidence for the clinical utility of lipoprotein-associated phospholipase A2 as a cardiovascular risk marker. Am J Cardiol. 2008;101 (suppl):41F-50F.
63. Khuseyinova N, Imhof A, Rothenbacher D, et al. Association between Lp-PLA2 and coronary artery disease: focus on its relationship with lipoproteins and markers of inflammation and hemostasis (HELICOR). Atherosclerosis. 2005;182:181-8. (Pubitemid 41188385)
64. Wolfert RL, Kim NW, Selby RG, et al. Biological variability and specificity of lipoprotein-associated phospholipase A2 (Lp-PLA2), a novel marker of cardiovascular risk [abstract]. Circulation. 2004;110 suppl 3:309.
65. Corson MA, Jones PH, Davidson MH. Review of the evidence for the clinical utility of lipoprotein-associated phospholipase A2 as a cardiovascular risk marker. Am J Cardiol. 2008;101 (suppl):41F-50F.
66. Persson M, Hedblad B, Nelson JJ, et al. Elevated Lp-PLA2 levels add prognostic information to the metabolic syndrome on incidence of cardiovascular events among middle-aged nondiabetic subjects. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2007;27:1411-6. (Pubitemid 46823453)
67. McLaughlin TM, Abbasi F,Wolfert R, et al. Lipoprotein-associated phospholipase A2 is not increased in association with insulin resistance. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2004;24:E-67.
68. Ballantyne CM, Hoogeveen RC, Bang H, et al. Lipoprotein-associated phospholipase A2, high-sensitivity C-reactive protein, and risk for incident heart disease in middle aged men and women in the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities (ARIC) study. Circulation. 2004;109:837-42. (Pubitemid 38252734)
69. Ballantyne CM, Hoogeveen RC, Bang H, et al. Lipoprotein associated phospholipase A2, high-sensitivity C-reactive protein, and risk for incident ischemic stroke in middle-aged men and women in the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities (ARIC) study. Arch Intern Med. 2005;165:2479-84. (Pubitemid 41720009)
70. Davidson MH, Corson MA, Alberts MJ et al. Consensus panel recommendation for incorporating lipoproteinassociated phospholipase A2 testing into cardiovascular disease risk assessment guidelines. Am J Cardiol. 2008;101(Suppl):51F-57F.
71. Davidson MH, Ballantyne CM, Jacobsen TA et al. Clinical utility of inflammatory markers and advanced lipoprotein testing: advice from and expert panel of lipid specialists. national lipid association expert panel on biomarker testing (in press).
72. Greenland P, Alpert JS, Beller GA, et al. ACCF/AHA guideline for assessment of cardiovascular risk in asymptomatic adults. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2010;56:50-103.
73. Wilensky RL, Shi Y, Mohler 3rd ER, et al. Inhibition of lipoprotein-associated phospholipase A2 reduces complex coronary atherosclerotic plaque development. Nat Med. 2008;14:1059-66.
74. White H, Held C, Steward R, et al. Study design and rationale for the clinical outcomes of the STABILITY Trial (STabilization of Atherosclerotic plaque By Initiation of darapLadib TherapY) comparing darapladib versus placebo in patients with coronary heart disease. Am Heart J. 2010;160:655-61.
75. Kathiresan S, Otvos JD, Sullivan LM, et al. Increased small low density lipoprotein particle number: a prominent feature of the metabolic syndrome in the Framingham Heart Study. Circulation. 2006;113:20-9. (Pubitemid 43958484)
76. Grundy SM. Low-density lipoprotein, non high-density lipoprotein, and apolipoprotein B as targets of lipid-lowering therapy. Circulation. 2002;106:2526-9. (Pubitemid 35340685)
77. Lamarche B, Moorjani S, Lupien PJ, et al. Apolipoprotein A-I and B levels and the risk of ischemic heart disease during a fiveyear follow-up of men in the Quebec Cardiovascular Study. Circulation. 1996;94:273-8. (Pubitemid 26266109)
78. St-Pierre AC, Cantin B, Dagenais GR, et al. Low-density lipoprotein subfractions and the long-term risk of ischemic heart disease in men: 13-year follow-up data from theQu'ebec Cardiovascular Study. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2005;25:553-9. (Pubitemid 40315677)
79. St-Pierre AC, Cantin B, Dagenais GR, et al. Apolipoprotein-B, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, and the long-term risk of coronary heart disease in men. Am J Cardiol. 2006;97:997-1001.
80. Walldius G, Jungner I, Holme I, et al. High apolipoprotein B, low apolipoprotein A-I, and improvement in the prediction of fatal myocardial infarction (AMORIS study): a prospective study. Lancet. 2001;358:2026-33. (Pubitemid 34084825)
81. Williams K, Sniderman AD, Sattar N, et al. Comparison of the associations of apolipoprotein B and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol with other cardiovascular risk factors in the Insulin Resistance Atherosclerosis Study (IRAS). Circulation. 2003;108:2312-6. (Pubitemid 37413535)
82. Corsetti JP, Zareba W, Moss AJ, et al. Apolipoprotein B determines risk for recurrent coronary events in postinfarction patients with metabolic syndrome. Atherosclerosis. 2004;177:367-73. (Pubitemid 39505270)
83. St-Pierre AC, Cantin B, Dagenais GR, et al. Apolipoprotein-B, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, and the long-term risk of coronary heart disease in men. Am J Cardiol. 2006;97:997-1001.
84. St-Pierre AC, Cantin B, Dagenais GR, et al. Low-density lipoprotein subfractions and the long-term risk of ischemic heart disease in men: 13-year follow-up data from the Qu'ebec Cardiovascular Study. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2005;25:553-9. (Pubitemid 40315677)
85. Sniderman AD, Williams K, Contois JH et al. A meta-analysis of LDL-C, non-HDL-C, and apoB as markers of cardiovascular risk. Circulation: CVQO. January 2011 (In Press).
86. Davidson MH, Ballantyne CM, Jacobsen TA et al. Clinical utility of inflammatory markers and advanced lipoprotein testing: advice from and expert panel of lipid specialists. National lipid association expert panel on biomarker testing (in press)
87. Brunzell JD, Davidson M, Furberg CD, et al. Lipoprotein management in patients with cardiometabolic risk: consensus conference report from the American Diabetes Association and the American College of Cardiology Foundation. Diabetes Care. 2008;4:811-22.
88. Greenland P, Alpert JS, Beller GA, et al. ACCF/AHA guideline for assessment of cardiovascular risk in asymptomatic adults. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2010;56:50-103.
89. Contois JH, McNamara JR, Lammi-Keefe CJ, et al. Reference intervals for plasma apolipoprotein A-I determined with a standardized commercial immunoturbidimetric assay: results from the Framingham Offspring Study. Clin Chem. 1996;42:507-14. (Pubitemid 26111867)
90. Meisinger C, Loewel H, Mraz W, et al. Prognostic value of apolipoprotein B and A-I in the prediction of myocardial infarction inmiddle-agedmen and women: results from the MONICA/KORA Augsburg cohort study. Eur Heart J. 2005;26:271-8. (Pubitemid 40222365)
91. Sharrett AR, Ballantyne CM, Coady SA, et al. Coronary heart disease prediction from lipoprotein cholesterol levels, triglycerides, lipoprotein(a), apolipoproteins A-I and B, and HDL density subfractions: the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities (ARIC) Study. Circulation. 2001;104:1108-13. (Pubitemid 32830392)
92. Luc G, Bard J-M, Ferri'eres J, on behalf of the PRIME Study Group, et al. Value of HDL cholesterol, apolipoprotein A-I, lipoprotein A-I, and lipoprotein A-I/A-II in prediction of coronary heart disease: the PRIME Study. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2002;22:1155-61. (Pubitemid 34764867)
93. Marcovina S, Packard CJ. Measurement and meaning of apolipoprotein AI and apolipoprotein B plasma levels. J Intern Med. 2006;259:437-46.
94. Davidson M. Apolipoprotein measurements: is more widespread use clinically indicated. Clinical Cardiol. 2009;32(9):482-6.
95. Walldius G, Jungner I. The apoB/apoA-I ratio: a strong, new risk factor for cardiovascular disease and a target for lipid-lowering therapy - a review of the evidence. J InternMed. 2006;259:493-519.
96. Yusuf S, Hawken S, on behalf of the INTERHEART Study Investigators, et al. Effect of potentially modifiable risk factors associated with myocardial infarction in 52 countries (the INTERHEART study): case-control study. Lancet. 2004;364:937-52. (Pubitemid 39208455)
97. Kastelein JJP, van der Steeg WA, Holme I, for the TNT and IDEAL Study Groups, et al. Lipids, apolipoproteins, and their ratios in relation to cardiovascular events with statin treatment. Circulation. 2008;117:3002-9.
98. Gotto Jr AM, Whitney E, Stein EA, et al. Relation between baseline and on-treatment lipid parameters and first acute major coronary events in the Air Force/Texas Coronary Atherosclerosis Prevention Study (AFCAPS/TexCAPS). Circulation. 2000;101:477-84. (Pubitemid 30080860)
99. Saely CH, Vonbank A, Drexel H. HDL cholesterol and residual risk of first cardiovascular events. Lancet. 2010;37:1738.
100. Rosenson RS, Davidson MH, Pourfarzib R. Underappreciated opportunities for low-density lipoprotein management in patients with cardiometabolic residual risk. Atherosclerosis 2010;213 (1):1-7.